Learning without thinking is harmful, and thinking without learning is dangerous. Confucius
Fundamental branch of natural science - Physics,from the Greek "nature".
One of the main works of the ancient Greek philosopher and scientist Aristotle was called Physics. Aristotle wrote: The science of nature studies mainly bodies and sizes, their properties and types of movement, and in addition, the beginning of this kind of being.
One of the tasks of physics is to identify the simplest and most common in nature, in the discovery of such laws, from which it would be possible to logically deduce a picture of the world - this is what A. Einstein believed.
The easiest - the so-called primary elements: molecules, atoms, elementary particles, fields, etc. General properties Matter is considered to be motion, space and time, mass, energy, etc.
When studying, the complex is reduced to the simple, the concrete to the general.
Friedrich Kekule (1829 - 1896) suggested hierarchy of natural sciences in the form of its four successive main stages: mechanics, physics, chemistry, biology.
First stepdevelopment of physics and natural science covers the period from the time of Aristotle to the beginning of the 17th century, and is called the ancient and medieval stage.
Second phase classical physics (classical mechanics) until the end of the 19th century. associated with Galileo Galilei and Isaac Newton.
In the history of physics, an important concept for understanding natural phenomena was atomism, according to which matter has an intermittent, discrete structure, that is, it consists of atoms. (Democritus, 4th century BC, - atoms and emptiness).
Stage three modern physics opened in 1900. Max Planck (1858-1947), who proposed a quantum approach to assessing accumulated experimental data based on a discrete concept.
The universality of physical laws confirms the unity of nature and the Universe as a whole.
Macrocosm - this is the world of physical bodies, consisting of microparticles. The behavior and properties of such bodies are described by classical physics.
Microworld or the world of microscopic particles, describes mainly quantum physics.
Megaworld - the world of stars, galaxies and the Universe, located outside the Earth.
Types of fundamental interactions
By now, four are known types of basic fundamental interactions:
gravitational, electromagnetic, strong, weak.
1 gravitational interaction characteristic of all material objects, consists in the mutual attraction of bodies and is determined fundamental law of gravity: an attractive force acts between two point bodies, which is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
Gravitational interaction in processes microworld does not play a significant role. However, in macro-processes he has a decisive role. For example, the movement of the planets of the solar system occurs in strict accordance with the laws of gravitational interaction.
Rthe radius of its action, like that of the electromagnetic interaction, is unlimited.
2.Electromagnetic interaction associated with electric and magnetic fields. Electromagnetic theory Maxwell connects electric and magnetic fields.
Various aggregate states of matter (solid, liquid and gaseous), the phenomenon of friction, elastic and other properties of matter are determined forces of intermolecular interactionwhich is electromagnetic in nature.
3.Strong interaction is responsible for the stability of nuclei and spreads only within the size of the nucleus. The stronger the interaction of nucleons in the nucleus, the more stable it is, the more of it bond energy.
Communication energy is determined by the work that needs to be done to separate the nucleons and remove them from each other at such distances at which the interaction becomes zero.
As the size of the nucleus increases, the binding energy decreases. So, the nuclei of the elements at the end of the periodic table are unstable and can decay. This process is often called radioactive decay.
4 weak interaction short-range and describes some types of nuclear processes.
The smaller the size of material systems, the more firmly their elements are connected.
Development unified theoryall known fundamental interactions (theory of everything) will allow for the conceptual integration of modern nature data.
In natural science, there are three types of matter: matter (physical bodies, molecules, atoms, particles), field (light, radiation, gravity, radio waves) and physical vacuum.
In the microcosm, many properties of which are of a quantum-mechanical nature, matter and field can be combined (in the spirit of the concept of wave-particle dualism).
System organization matter expresses the orderliness of the existence of matter.
Structural organization of matter - those specific forms in which it manifests itself (exists).
Under structure of matter usually it is understood its structure in the microcosm, existence in the form of molecules, atoms, elementary particles, etc.
Force - a physical measure of the interaction of bodies.
Body mass is a source of strength in accordance with the law of gravity. Thus, the concept of mass, first introduced by Newton, is more fundamental than forces.
According to quantum field theory, particles with mass can be born from a physical vacuum at a sufficiently high concentration of energy.
Energy thus acts as an even more fundamental and general concept than mass, since energy is inherent not only in matter, but also in massless fields.
Energy - a universal measure of various forms of movement and interaction.
The law of universal gravitation formulated by Newton isforce of gravitational interaction F. F \u003d G * т1 * т2 / r2 where G - gravitational constant.
Traffic in its most general form, it is a change in the state of a physical system.
For quantitative description of movement formed ideas about space and time, which have undergone significant changes over a long period of development of natural science.
In his fundamental Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy, Newton wrote:
".. Time and space are, as it were, the receptacles of themselves and all that exists."
Time expresses the order of changing physical states
Time is an objective characteristic of any physical process or phenomenon; it is universal.
Talking about time without regard to changes in any real bodies or systems is senseless from a physical point of view.
However, in the process of development of physics with the advent of special theory of relativity the statement arose:
First of all, the passage of time depends on the speed of movement of the reference frame. At a sufficiently high speed, close to the speed of light, time slows down, i.e., relativistic time dilation.
Secondly, the gravitational field leads to gravitational slowing down time.
We can only talk about local time in a certain frame of reference. In this regard, time is not an entity that does not depend on matter. It flows at different speeds in different physical conditions. Time is always relative .
Space - expresses the order of coexistence of physical bodies.
The first complete theory of space - euclidean geometry... It was created about 2000 years ago. Euclidean geometry operates with ideal mathematical objects that exist as if out of time, and in this sense the space in this geometry is the ideal mathematical space.
Newton introduced the concept of absolute spacewhich can be completely empty and exists regardless of the presence of physical bodies in it.The properties of such a space are determined by Euclidean geometry.
Until the middle of the 19th century, when non-Euclidean geometries were created, none of the naturalists doubted the identity of the real physical and Euclidean spaces.
For description mechanical movement of a body in absolute space you need to specify another as reference bodies - consideration of one single body in empty space is meaningless.
Fundamental interactions are various types of interaction of elementary particles and bodies composed of them, which are not reducible to each other. Today, the existence of four fundamental interactions is reliably known: gravitational, electromagnetic, strong and weak interactions, and the electromagnetic and weak interactions, generally speaking, are manifestations of a single electroweak interaction. Searches are underway for other types of interactions, both in the phenomena of the microworld and on a cosmic scale, but so far the existence of any other type of interaction has not been discovered.
Electromagnetic interaction is one of four fundamental interactions. Electromagnetic interaction exists between electrically charged particles. From a modern point of view, the electromagnetic interaction between charged particles is not carried out directly, but only through the electromagnetic field.
From the point of view of quantum field theory, electromagnetic interaction is carried by a massless boson - a photon (a particle that can be thought of as the quantum excitation of an electromagnetic field). The photon itself does not have an electric charge, which means it cannot directly interact with other photons.
Of the fundamental particles, particles with an electric charge also participate in the electromagnetic interaction: quarks, an electron, a muon and a tau particle (from fermions), as well as charged gauge bosons.
Electromagnetic interaction differs from weak and strong interaction in its long-range nature - the strength of interaction between two charges decreases only as the second power of distance (see: Coulomb's law). According to the same law, the gravitational interaction decreases with distance. The electromagnetic interaction of charged particles is much stronger than the gravitational one, and the only reason why the electromagnetic interaction does not manifest itself with great force on a cosmic scale is the electrical neutrality of matter, that is, the presence of equal amounts of positive and negative charges in each region of the Universe with a high degree of accuracy.
In the classical (non-quantum) framework, the electromagnetic interaction is described by classical electrodynamics.
Brief summary of the main formulas of classical electrodynamics
A current-carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field is acted upon by the Ampere force:
A charged particle moving in a magnetic field is affected by the Lorentz force:
Gravitamation (universal gravitation, gravitation) (from Lat. Gravitas - "heaviness") is a long-range fundamental interaction to which all material bodies are subject. According to modern concepts, it is a universal interaction of matter with the space-time continuum, and, unlike other fundamental interactions, all bodies without exception, regardless of their mass and internal structure, at the same point in space and time are given the same acceleration relatively locally -inertial reference frame - Einstein's principle of equivalence. Mainly, gravity has a decisive influence on matter on a cosmic scale. The term gravity is also used as the name of the branch of physics that studies gravitational interaction. The most successful modern physical theory in classical physics describing gravity is general relativity; the quantum theory of gravitational interaction has not yet been built.
Gravitational interaction is one of the four fundamental interactions in our world. Within the framework of classical mechanics, gravitational interaction is described by Newton's law of universal gravitation, which states that the force of gravitational attraction between two material points of mass m1 and m2, separated by the distance R, is proportional to both masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance - that is
Here G is the gravitational constant equal to approximately 6.6725 * 10m? / (Kg * s?).
The law of universal gravitation is one of the applications of the inverse square law, which is also found in the study of radiation, and is a direct consequence of the quadratic increase in the area of \u200b\u200ba sphere with increasing radius, which leads to a quadratic decrease in the contribution of any unit area to the area of \u200b\u200bthe entire sphere.
The gravity field is potential. This means that the potential energy of the gravitational attraction of a pair of bodies can be introduced, and this energy will not change after the bodies move along a closed loop. The potential of the gravity field entails the conservation law of the sum of kinetic and potential energy, and when studying the motion of bodies in a gravity field, it often greatly simplifies the solution. Within the framework of Newtonian mechanics, gravitational interaction is long-range. This means that no matter how a massive body moves, at any point in space the gravitational potential depends only on the position of the body at a given moment in time.
Large space objects - planets, stars and galaxies have a huge mass and, therefore, create significant gravitational fields.
Gravity is the weakest interaction. However, since it acts at all distances and all masses are positive, it is nevertheless a very important force in the universe. For comparison: the total electric charge of these bodies is zero, since the substance as a whole is electrically neutral.
Also, gravity, unlike other interactions, is universal in action on all matter and energy. Objects were not found that would have no gravitational interaction at all.
Due to its global nature, gravity is responsible for such large-scale effects as the structure of galaxies, black holes and the expansion of the Universe, and for elementary astronomical phenomena - the orbits of planets, and for the simple attraction to the Earth's surface and falling bodies.
Gravity was the first interaction described by mathematical theory. Aristotle believed that objects with different masses fall at different speeds. Only much later, Galileo Galilei experimentally determined that this is not so - if the air resistance is eliminated, all bodies are accelerated in the same way. Isaac Newton's law of universal gravitation (1687) described the general behavior of gravity well. In 1915, Albert Einstein created General Relativity, which more accurately describes gravity in terms of space-time geometry.
It is customary to characterize the intensity of each interaction by the interaction constant, which is a dimensionless parameter that determines the probability of processes caused by this type of interaction.
Gravitational interaction.The constant of this interaction is of the order of magnitude. The range is not limited. The gravitational interaction is universal, all particles, without exception, are subject to it. However, in the processes of the microworld, this interaction does not play an essential role. There is an assumption that this interaction is transmitted by gravitons (quanta of the gravitational field). However, to date, no experimental facts that would confirm their existence have been found.
Electromagnetic interaction. The interaction constant is approximately equal, the range is not limited.
Strong interaction... This type of interaction provides a bond between nucleons in the nucleus. The interaction constant has a value of the order of 10. The greatest distance at which the strong interaction is manifested is of the order of m.
Weak interaction.This interaction is responsible for all types - nuclear decay, including electronic K-capture, for the decay of elementary particles and for the processes of interaction of neutrinos with matter. The order of magnitude of the constant of this interaction is. The weak interaction, like the strong one, is short-range.
Let's go back to the Yukawa particle. According to his theory, there is a particle that transmits a strong interaction, just as a photon is a carrier of electromagnetic interaction, it was called a meson (intermediate). This particle should have a mass intermediate between the masses of an electron and a proton and be. Since photons not only transmit electromagnetic interaction, but also exist in a free state, therefore, free mesons must also exist.
In 1937, a meson (muon) was discovered in cosmic rays, which, however, did not reveal a strong interaction with matter. The desired particle was also discovered in cosmic rays 10 years later by Powell and Occhialini, they called it a meson (pion).
There are positive, negative and neutral mesons.
The charge and mesons are equal to the elementary charge. The mass of charged mesons is the same and is equal to 273, the mass of an electrically neutral meson is slightly less and is 264. The spin of all three mesons is zero; the lifetime of charged mesons is 2.6 s, and the lifetime of a meson is 0.8 s.
All three particles are not stable.
Elementary particles are usually divided into four classes:
1. Photons(quanta of the electromagnetic field). They participate in electromagnetic interaction, but do not manifest themselves in any way in strong or weak interactions.
2. Leptons... These include particles that do not have strong interactions: electrons and positrons, muons, and all types of neutrinos. All leptons have a spin of ½. All leptons are carriers of the weak interaction. Charged leptons also participate in electromagnetic interactions. Leptons are considered to be truly elementary particles. They do not disintegrate, have no internal structure, and have no measurable upper limit (m).
The last two classes make up complex particles with an internal structure: mesons and baryons... They are often combined into one family and called hadrons.
This family includes all three - mesons, as well as K-mesons. The class of baryons includes nucleons that are carriers of strong interactions.
As already mentioned, the Schrödinger equation does not satisfy the requirements of the principle of relativity - it is not invariant with respect to the Lorentz transformations.
In 1928, the Englishman Dirac obtained the relativistic quantum-mechanical equation for the electron, from which the existence of the spin and the intrinsic magnetic moment of the electron naturally followed. This equation made it possible to predict the existence of an antiparticle in relation to an electron - a positron.
From the Dirac equation, it turned out that the energy of a free particle can have both positive and negative values.
Between the highest negative energy and the lowest positive energy, there is an interval of energies that cannot be realized. The width of this interval is. Hence, two regions of energy eigenvalues \u200b\u200bare obtained: one starts from extends to +, the other starts from and extends to. According to Dirac, a vacuum is a space in which all allowed levels with negative energies are completely filled with electrons (according to Pauli's principle), and those with positive ones are free. Since all, without exception, levels below the forbidden band are occupied, the electrons located at these levels do not manifest themselves in any way. If one of the electrons is given energy at a negative level, then this electron will go into a state with positive energy, then it will behave there like an ordinary particle with a negative charge and positive mass. A vacancy (hole) formed in the aggregate of negative levels will be perceived as a particle with positive charge and mass. This first of the theoretically predicted particles was named a positron.
The creation of an electron-positron pair occurs during the passage of photons through matter. This is one of the processes leading to absorption - radiation by matter. The minimum quantum energy required for the creation of an electron-positron pair is 1.02 MeV (which coincided with Dirac's calculations) and the equation for such a reaction has the form:
Where X is the nucleus, in the force field of which an electron-positron pair is produced; it is this that receives the excess of the momentum - the quantum.
Dirac's theory seemed too "crazy" to his contemporaries and was recognized only after Anderson discovered a positron in cosmic radiation in 1932. When an electron meets a positron, annihilation occurs, i.e. the electron returns to a negative level.
In a slightly modified form, the Dirac equation is applicable to other particles with half-integer spin. Consequently, each such particle has its own antiparticle.
Almost all elementary particles, as already mentioned, belong to one of two families:
1. Leptons.
2. Hadrons.
The main difference between them is that hadrons participate in strong and electromagnetic interactions, while leptons do not.
Leptons are considered to be truly elementary particles. There were four of them: an electron (), a muon (), an electron neutrino (), a muonic neutrino. Later, the lepton and its neutrinos were discovered. They don't fall apart; do not reveal any internal structure; have no measurable dimensions.
Hadrons more complex particles; they have an internal structure and participate in strong nuclear interactions. This family of particles can be divided into two classes:
mesons and baryons (proton, neutron, -baryons). The last four types of baryons can ultimately decay into protons and neutrons.
In 1963, Gell-Mann and independently of him Zweig put forward the idea that all known hadrons are built from three truly elementary particles - quarks, which have a fractional charge.
u- quark q \u003d +; d - quark q \u003d -; s - quark q \u003d -.
Until 1974, all known hadrons could be presented as a combination of these three hypothetical particles, but the heavy one discovered this year - the meson did not fit into the three-quark scheme.
Based on the deep symmetry of nature, some physicists have put forward a hypothesis about the existence of the fourth quark, which is called "charmed", its charge is q \u003d +. This quark differs from the rest by the presence of a property or quantum number C \u003d +1 - called "charm" or "charm".
The newly discovered meson turned out to be a combination of a "charmed" quark and its antiquark.
Further discoveries of new hadrons required the introduction of the fifth (c) and sixth (t) quarks. The distinction between quarks came to be called "color" and "flavor".
GRAVITATION AND ITS PHYSICAL ESSENCE
Gadzhiev S.Sh., doctor of technical sciences, prof.
NOU VPO "Social Pedagogical Institute" Derbent
Resume: The article examines the phenomena of motion of the force of nature, and according to these forces, the rest of the phenomena that allow to reveal the essence of cognition of natural phenomena in general, and, in particular, the riddles of "gravity" and (or) the physical essence of gravity. The universal law of the interaction of the forces of the system and the universal method based on it serve as the key to understanding natural phenomena and processes. From the conducted comprehensive analysis of the interaction of the bodies of the system, it turns out that the reason for not revealing the physical essence of the law of universal gravitation turned out to be in the absence in nature as such of the attraction of bodies to each other.
Key words: cognition of natural phenomena, law, method, interaction of bodies.
Abstract: This article examines the phenomenon of motion the forces of nature, and these forces other phenomena, allowing to discover the essence of knowledge of natural phenomena in general and, in particular, the puzzle of "gravitation" and (or) the physical nature of gravity. Universal law of the interaction offorces and systems based on it are key universal method of knowledge of natural phenomena and processes. Of conducted a comprehensive analysis of the interaction of bodies appears that the reason is not solved the physical essence of the law of universal gravitation was in the nature of the absence of gravity as such bodies to each other.
Keywords: knowledge of natural phenomena, law, method, interacting bodies.
The history of the origin of thought about universal gravitation
Academician S.I. Vavilov, in his book Isaac Newton, cites a well-known story that the unexpected fall of an apple from a tree in Woolsthorpe led to the discovery of Newton's gravity. This story, apparently, is reliable and is not a legend. Stekeli reproduces the following scene relating to Newton's old age: “After lunch in London (at Newton's) the weather was hot; we went into the garden and drank tea in the shade of several apple trees; were only
the two of us. By the way, Ser Isaac told me that he was in such a situation when the idea of \u200b\u200bgravity first occurred to him. It was caused by an apple falling as he sat lost in thought. Why do apples fall vertically, he thought to himself, why not to the side, but always to the center of the Earth. There must be an attractive force in matter, concentrated in the center of the Earth. If matter pulls other matter in this way, then there must be proportionality to its quantity. Therefore, the apple attracts the Earth in the same way as the Earth attracts an apple. There must, therefore, be a force similar to what we call gravity, extending throughout the universe. "
For some reason Stekeley's story remained little known, but a similar retelling of Voltaire from the words of Newton's niece spread throughout the world. I liked the story, they began to show an apple, as if it had served as the reason for the emergence of "Principles", poets and philosophers used a grateful metaphor, comparing the Newtonian apple with the apple that killed Adam, or with the apple of Paris; people far from science, liked the simple mechanics of the emergence of a complex scientific idea. There are other fictional legends. As we can see, here Newton gave his assumption about the happening phenomenon, without revealing its physical mechanism, and, naturally, it seemed to him a real guess of the essence of a natural phenomenon.
Although gravity is the most clearly perceptible of all four fundamental forces of nature, which acts on everything and all of us, starting from childhood, when we barely got up and fell, not keeping our feet. However, it still remains an unsolved mystery of nature.
More than three hundred years have passed since the discovery of the law of universal gravitation, established by Newton in the form of a mathematical formula, and until now the physical mechanism of the gravitation of bodies to each other has not been revealed.
The reason for everything is the absence, as such, of the law of universal gravitation in general, and in connection with the absence of gravitation of any bodies to each other in nature. All processes occurring and attributed to "gravitation" are performed by the gravitational field, and not by gravitation attributed to the nature of the forces of the gravitational field. Gravity is not gravity. Nothing can create gravity of bodies to each other, including gravity. Any physical field does its job. Do we attribute the concept of "gravitation" to the action of a known magnetic field? No. Because repulsion is observed at the same time. The whole reason lies in the interaction, that is, in the direction of movement of these (considered) magnetic fields.
It is believed that according to Einstein, space and time are a form of the existence of matter. In reality, no one can object and doubt that space and time determine the location and duration of the existence of matter, including all kinds of physical fields. The basis of the entire Universe is the space where material components take place, as well as all known and not yet identified physical fields, and
time determines the duration of the existence of material bodies and the duration of the course of phenomena and processes of nature.
The ideas that have arisen about the curvature of space and even worse, when they believe that matter is a curved space. Then it turns out that matter is absent in nature, it becomes space, that is, matter turns into curved space. It follows from this that space is in two states: curved and not curved. Only they cannot indicate the location and the transformation or transition of matter into curved space. The distribution (or finding) of energy in space cannot be taken for the curvature of space itself. The statement that it is not the ray that changes its direction, passing by the Sun, but the curved space directs it in this way, should be considered unfounded. To change the direction of movement, a certain force must be applied, which could give a reason for justifying this or that phenomenon. In other words, such unsubstantiated statements evoke nothing more than the irony of a sober mind. It turns out that there is no matter in nature, only curved and non-curved space remains.
Time was unnecessarily “stuck” to space and, “at the behest of a pike,” it was called four-dimensional space. As a result, of the three fundamental components of the Universe, only one space remained, to which many hypothetical assumptions are attributed, which have already entered the everyday life of scientists, without having a real physical idea of \u200b\u200bsuch multidimensional spaces. However, such multidimensionality of space is just speculative constructions, not based on practice, which have been misleading for many generations.
In any case, it remains obvious that nature has at its core three fundamental components: space, time, matter. Without their independent existence, naturally, the course of any phenomena and processes is unthinkable. The simplest example. The body is moving. This requires space, time and the body itself (matter). Which of them can be excluded from this phenomenon? Syncretism, that is, their fusion was provided by Nature itself. Why unite them in parts: space-time, space-body (matter), or to unite time with matter? They are united without us and forever. This is that "Holy Trinity", without which nothing can be.
If matter disappears (disappears), then time and space will remain unclaimed. It is not possible to get rid of space and time. They are absolute, that is, eternal and unchanging fundamental principles, like matter, for everything that exists in the universe. Naturally, for the finding (existence) of matter, space is necessary as a container, and time is necessary for the duration of existence. Consequently, all these three components of the Universe itself enter into their functions, providing all natural phenomena and processes. The task of science is to understand the physical mechanism and
the reason for the emergence of phenomena and processes, that is, to get to the essence of these regularities of phenomena and answer the question: why does this happen in this way and not otherwise?
Matter (mass) cannot change the geometry of space. It only concentrates the flow of gravitons, and the gravitational field does not belong to any planet or other cosmic bodies, just as light does not belong to a focusing lens. It is completely different when we consider the magnetic field created by the magnet itself. In other words, the magnet radiates its field into space, and light and gravitational field, in the phenomena under consideration, do not belong to these bodies. They come from outside from other emitters. For instance. Light can enter the lens from any of its sources. We are not saying that the lens bends space, although there is a real similarity of curvature, that is, a change in the direction of the flow of light. A similar picture is observed with the gravitational field when passing through massive space bodies.
Here we find an analogy between the flow of light and the gravitational field. When the direction of light is bent through the lens, we observe the refraction of light and in no way can we say that light enters the curved space near the lens. In contrast, the magnetic field created by the magnet itself belongs to the magnet, and the gravitational field does not belong to any body with which they interact. The lens only concentrates or can, depending on the shape of the lens (optical glass), diffuse the light flux. The same can be said about the concentration of the flow of the gravitational field, carried out by a large mass of spherical bodies in space.
The gravitational field creates not gravity, but pushing bodies
A comprehensive analysis of the interaction of the forces of the system shows that attraction is an apparent phenomenon, as earlier it seemed the rotation of the Sun, stars and planets around our Earth.
It is known that the search for the fundamental laws of nature remains one more daunting task of science. The nature of the forces is recognized by the phenomena of motion, when there is a change in the amount of motion in time. To reveal the nature of the physical essence of gravitational forces, which determines the heaviness of the body, it is necessary to look for the reason for the occurrence of such gravity by the phenomena of motion of the interacting material bodies of the system under consideration.
There is no doubt that all attempts to understand the physical nature of gravity
invariably ended in failure. Even G. Galileo came to the conclusion on this issue that we do not know anything, except for the name, which for this special case is known as "heaviness".
I. Newton, faced with the problem of explaining the nature of gravitation, was forced to admit that he could not deduce the cause of the force of gravity from phenomena.
M. Kline writes that Newton explained the limited success of his program as follows: “That gravity must be an internal, inherent and essential attribute of matter, thereby allowing any body to act on another at a distance through a vacuum, without any intermediary, with with the help of which and through which action and force could be transferred from one body to another, seems to me such an outrageous absurdity that, in my deep conviction, not a single person, in any way experienced in philosophical matters and endowed with the ability to think, will agree with it ".
Newton clearly realized that the law of universal gravitation discovered by him is a description, not an explanation. Therefore, he wrote to Richard Bentley: “Sometimes you talk about gravitation as something essential and inherent in matter. I beg you not to attribute this concept to me, because I do not pretend to know the causes of gravitation, and therefore I will not waste time on considering them. In the same place, M. Kline writes that H. Huygens was surprised that Newton took the trouble to do a lot of cumbersome calculations, without having the slightest basis for this, except for the mathematical law of universal gravitation. Huygens considered the idea of \u200b\u200bgravitation as absurd on the grounds that its action, transmitted through empty space, excluded any mechanism. GV Leibniz also criticized Newton's works on the theory of gravity, believing that the famous formula for gravitational forces is nothing more than a computational rule that does not deserve the name of the law of nature. "Leibniz compared this law to Aristotle's animistic explanation of the fall of a stone to the ground by referring to the stone's 'desire' to return to its natural place."
Newton himself did not believe that the nature of gravity could not be revealed. He simply believed that the level of knowledge of his time was insufficient to solve this problem, and hoped that the nature of gravity would be investigated by others. However, his followers elevated this temporary Newton's refusal to explain gravitation into an unshakable principle of science, which should be limited only to a description of phenomena, without deeply revealing their causes, still inaccessible to human understanding.
This approach to solving problems is characteristic of some researchers with difficulties in understanding natural phenomena. The solution to the fluidized bed problem was limited to this method. Some even decided to accept fluidization as a new state of matter and abandon further search for the physical essence of this phenomenon. The special interest of scientists in this issue “faded away” all over the world after we disclosed the real physical essence of a heterogeneous fluidized state and published the results in a number of countries abroad.
The age-old problem is the explanation of the "negative" result of the Michelson-Morley experiment. Due to the absence, over a certain period of time, of a real unambiguous explanation of the result of only one of this experiment and
of their impotence, researchers began to question the entire foundation of classical mechanics, including the unshakable conservation laws. As a result, they introduced dependencies not inherent in nature: mass, time and space on the speed of motion of bodies. The solution to this problem and the real approach we have found may well turn out to be final. Let's hope that we will be heard, understood, objectively evaluated and accepted our decision, which will return the unshakable foundations of classical mechanics. This topic should be covered in detail in a separate work. Despite the widespread law of universal gravitation, no one has yet been able to explain its physical mechanism, and the nature of its action remained unclear.
At the present stage of the development of science, it seems to us that gravity does not arise due to gravitation, but as a result of pushing caused by the resistance exerted by the body when the gravitational field passes through it.
Analyzing the real essence of the observed phenomena, one can come to the conclusion that "attraction" is an apparent phenomenon. The bodies are not attracted, but they are pushed towards each other or they are moved away from each other.
In nature, apparently, there is no physical mechanism for the "attraction" of bodies, since there is no attraction at a distance without external action. The interaction of bodies determines only pushing and pushing them away. The mechanism of the observed (in reality, apparent) "attractive force" of two bodies includes pushing due to a change in the momentum (or momentum) of the third body interacting with them.
The gravitational field (ie gravitons), which exerts pressure on all material bodies, which in reality creates gravity, which we take as "attraction" to the Earth, serves as such a third body that causes the apparent attraction to the Earth.
A similar picture is observed here, as at one time it was believed that the Earth is the center of the Universe, and all celestial bodies move around it. In the gravitational field, the "attraction" to the Earth also seemed obvious, but in reality, each particle of the planet itself and the surrounding atmosphere experience the pressure (force) of the gravitational field, directed perpendicular to the surface of the Earth. Consequently, it is not the Earth that attracts to itself, but it itself experiences the force of graviton pressure, which gives "gravity" to all material constituent elements of the Earth's system.
There is a significant difference in the phenomena of the gravitational field and electromagnetic interaction. In electromagnetic fields there is attraction and repulsion, and in a gravitational field, only gravity arises. Apparently, in electric charges, some charged bodies emit an electric field, while others receive, like a magnet, where the lines of force always come from the north pole and go to the south pole, which they enter. AT
as a result, the like-named ones are repelled, and the opposite components of these fields push the bodies towards each other.
In contrast, the gravitational field permeates all bodies. In this case, the resistance exerted by material bodies to the gravitational field causes pressure, which causes gravity. This energy of gravity, created by the gravitational field in massive bodies, transforms into heat, due to which an appropriate temperature arises and is maintained in the bowels of planets and stars indefinitely. Thus, the heat (energy) lost by radiation of the stars, the Sun and planets is replenished.
The force of gravity caused by gravity is a real result of interaction caused by a change in the momentum of gravitons, and "gravitation" is an imaginary, apparent idea of \u200b\u200bthe phenomena when bodies fall, which we observe in everyday life.
Unfortunately, physics mixed up the concepts: gravity, gravity, attraction and gravity. Bodies do not tend to attract each other. The convergence inherent in bodies is a forced phenomenon, caused by a third material body or physical fields: magnetic, electric, gravitational and other known and still unknown forces.
We do not even assume the possibility of the appearance of cosmic bodies at a distance to repel each other, and we do not imagine anything about the necessity of the "law of universal repulsion". This is when a physical explanation of the essence and the most famous "law of universal gravitation" has not yet been found. The answer about the physical essence of the phenomena of attraction and gravitation has not been found due to the fact that they do not exist. In nature, only repulsion and pushing are observed. Consequently, gravity cannot create either gravity or attraction that are absent in nature.
Gravity causes gravity and thereby returns thermal energy dissipated in outer space. Basically, the energy of the gravitational field is concentrated in massive space bodies, where it transforms into mass, and the mass, in turn, accumulates gravitational energy. It is obvious that the divine law of the cycle is manifested here too. As energy accumulates in the Sun and the stars, radiation is renewed, which again leads to the return of energy to the general circulation of natural phenomena.
So, we can say that the problem of "thermal death" of the Universe disappears (disappears). The imaginary fear turned out to be a forced invention of the researchers.
All living things in nature, its charms, and the harmony of the universe are due to the divine laws of circulation and, in particular, concentration and return to the cycle of energy circulation, where gravity plays the most important role. In the absence of a gravitational field, there would be no life or heat. Then everything could freeze. The Sun would cool down, and all the stars and other luminaries would go out. However, divinely charming laws: circulation, recreation,
reproduction, renewal, renewal - they dominate and preserve the stability of living and inanimate nature.
It is curious that in appearance the law of universal gravitation and the law of interaction of electric charges of Coulomb are identical. This remarkable feature in their similarity helps us uncover the mechanism of gravity created by the gravitational field. It only remains to find out why attraction and repulsion are observed in electric charges, while in a gravitational field, only the "attraction" that seems to us.
A similar pattern to gravitational attraction is observed when iron filings (objects) are attracted to a magnet. Here we also observe only attraction and do not observe the inherent repulsion of the poles of the same name.
The question arises. Why are iron objects attracted to both the north and south poles of a magnet, and there is no repulsion, like in a gravitational field? How to explain the mechanism of such a coincidence?
Of course, the force arises when the momentum changes, i.e. amount of motion. The change in the latter at a constant mass can be determined only by changing the speed of the material body. With a change in speed, the energy state of the body changes in accordance with the principle of energy, which says: any change in speed causes an increase or decrease in the energy of the body. Consequently, the reason for such a coincidence of the forces of "attraction" in such different phenomena is explained by a change in the momentum (momentum) of the magnetic and gravitational flows. fields when interacting with the corresponding material bodies. It should be emphasized that in nature as such, the existence of an attraction of bodies is not possible. Therefore, H. Huygens quite rightly considered the idea of \u200b\u200bgravitation to be absurd.
In reality, the gravitational field penetrates the bodies, pushing them in their direction of motion. Then it turns out not the law of gravitation, but the law of motion of bodies in a gravitational field under the influence of the energy of decelerating gravitons, caused by the resistance of material bodies to the gravitational field.
Summarizing the above, it follows that the reason for the non-disclosure of the physical essence of the law of universal gravitation turned out to be in the absence of the gravitation of bodies in nature as such.
The analysis shows that in nature, so familiar to us, for so many years, there is no "gravitation" of bodies to each other, and the observed convergence of bodies is caused by pushing them towards each other by the third body. Physical fields can also act as the third body, including the gravitational field, which "presses" all material bodies to the surface of massive space formations - planets and stars.
The universal law of interaction of the fields of forces of the system greatly facilitates the solution of many problems along with many problems of phenomena and processes of nature, including cosmology.
It is gratifying that the mathematical expression (description) of Newton's law of universal gravitation also finds its deep scientific justification in the revealed physical essence.
It turned out to be quite expedient for the knowledge of natural phenomena when they proceed from the universal law of interaction of the fields of forces of the system, which serves as a universal key for revealing the essence of the observed phenomena and processes in the entire universe.
REFERENCE:
1. Vavilov S.I. Isaac Newton. - M. - L .: Publishing house of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, 1945. -230 p .;
2. Kline M. Mathematics. Search for Truth: Per. from English / Ed. IN AND. Arshinova, Yu.V. Sachkova. - M .: Mir, 1988. - 295p .;
3. Gadzhiev S.Sh. Interaction of system forces in technological processes (analysis, theory, practice). - Makhachkala: DSU Publishing House, 1993. - 210s.
The interactions of material objects and systems observed in nature are very diverse. However, as shown by physical studies, all interactions can be attributed to four kinds of fundamental interactions:
- gravitational;
- electromagnetic;
- strong;
- to the weak.
The gravitational interaction is manifested in the mutual attraction of any material objects with mass. It is transmitted through the gravitational field and is determined by the fundamental law of nature - the law of universal gravitation, formulated by I. Newton: between two material points of mass m1 and m2 located at a distance rfrom each other, force acts F,directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them:
F \u003d G? (m1m2) / r2... Where G-gravitational constant. According to quantum theory r "the fields that carry gravitational interaction are gravitons - particles with zero mass, quanta of the gravitational field.
Electromagnetic interaction is caused by electrical charges and is transmitted through electric and magnetic fields. An electric field arises in the presence of electric charges, and a magnetic field - when they move. A changing magnetic field generates an alternating electric field, which in turn is a source of an alternating magnetic field.
Electromagnetic interaction is described by the fundamental laws of electrostatics and electrodynamics: the law Pendant,by law Ampereand others, - and in a generalized form - by the electromagnetic theory Maxwell,connecting the electric and magnetic fields. The receipt, transformation and application of electric and magnetic fields serve as the basis for the creation of a variety of modern technical means.
According to quantum electrodynamics, the carriers of electromagnetic interaction are photons - quanta of the electromagnetic field with zero mass.
The strong interaction ensures the bonding of nucleons in the nucleus. It is determined by nuclear forces possessing charge independence, short-range, saturation and other properties. Strong interactions are responsible for the stability of atomic nuclei. The stronger the interaction of nucleons in the nucleus, the more stable the nucleus. With an increase in the number of nucleons in the nucleus and, consequently, the size of the nucleus, the specific binding energy decreases and the nucleus can decay.
It is assumed that the strong interaction is transmitted by gluons - particles that "glue" the quarks that make up protons, neutrons and other particles.
All elementary particles, except for the photon, participate in the weak interaction. It determines the majority of decays of elementary particles, the interaction of neutrinos with matter, and other processes. Weak interaction is manifested mainly in the processes of beta decay of atomic nuclei. The carriers of the weak interaction are intermediate, or vector, bosons - particles with a mass approximately 100 times the mass of protons and neutrons.