Psychology - the science of man, his spiritual essence and psyche in their development and in all the variety of forms.
General psychology - a fundamental discipline that studies the general laws of cognitive processes and states and the general mental properties of an individual.
The path of development of psychological science was more difficult than the development of other sciences, such as physics or chemistry. It is not difficult to understand the reasons for this difference. After all, as is well known, objects of physics, chemistry, and other natural sciences are somehow visible, tangible, material. Psychology, on the other hand, deals with a substance that, although it constantly reveals itself, nevertheless appears as a special reality of the highest level and differs from material reality in its invisibility, intangibility, and insubstantiality.
It is this difference, giving rise to difficulties in fixing psychological phenomena, and hampered from the very beginning the development of psychological knowledge, its transformation into an independent science, since its object itself for a long time seemed elusive, mysterious.
The history of psychological knowledge has more than 2000 years, during which it developed mainly within the framework of philosophy and natural science.
The beginning of the transformation of psychology into an independent science is associated with the name of the German scientist Christian Wolf (1679-1754), who published Rational Psychology (1732), and Experimental Psychology (1734), in which he used the term psychology.
However, only from the beginning of the XX century. psychology finally emerged as an independent science. At the turn of the XX-XXI centuries. the importance of psychology has significantly increased in connection with its increasing involvement in various types of practical activity. Such branches of her as pedagogical, legal, military, managerial, sports psychology, etc. have arisen. At the same time, the originality of the object of psychological science has generated in its composition a large number of scientific schools and theories that complement each other and often contradict each other.
The meaning of the word "psychology" itself becomes clear if we consider that it consists of two Greek terms: « psyche» - the soul, derived from the name of the Greek goddess Psyche, and « logos» - word, concept, teaching, science.
Since its inception, psychology began to stand out among other sciences, since it was the only one among them that was named after the goddess.
Psychology owes its name to Greek mythology. According to one of the myths, the god of love Eros fell in love with a simple peasant woman Psyche... distinguished, however, by divine beauty. But the mother of Eros, the goddess Aphrodite, was very unhappy that her son was. celestial, he wanted to join his fate with a mere mortal. Aphrodite began to make efforts to separate the lovers. She made Psyche go through many trials. But the desire of Psyche to unite her fate with Eros turned out to be so great that it made a strong impression on the gods of Olympus and they decided to help Psyche overcome all the trials that fell to her lot and fulfill her requirements of Aphrodite. In the meantime, Eros managed to convince the supreme God - Zeus, to turn Psyche into a goddess, to make her as immortal as the gods. So the lovers manage to unite forever.
In fact, it is this deep thought about the integrity of the universe, which includes two main principles - material and spiritual. contained in the ancient myth, became the basis for the concepts of modern materialistic philosophy and psychology about the essence of the human psyche, as such a property of highly organized matter, which embodies the highest stage of the universal evolution of nature.
It is this idea that is expressed in the most common definition of psychological science today:
Psychology is a science, the object of which is the laws of the psyche as a special, highest form of human and animal life.
The very same psyche today it is understood not as something mysterious and inexplicable, but as the highest form of interconnection of living beings with the objective world, which emerged as a result of a long process of self-organization of nature, expressed in their ability to realize their motives based on information about this world.
At the level of a person, which expresses the highest stage of the process of organization, the orderliness of being, the psyche acquires a qualitatively new character due to the fact that the biological nature of a person is transformed by socio-cultural factors, due to which an extensive internal plan of life appears - consciousness, and a person becomes a person.
However, even today it should be borne in mind that for many centuries the psyche was designated by the term "soul", which was presented as an ethereal entity, the history and fate of which, according to various religious beliefs that have survived to this day, depends not so much on processes of self-organization of natural life,not so much from a living body, how much from extraterrestrial, supernatural principles, from otherworldly forces inaccessible to our understanding. It is this idea of \u200b\u200bthe essence of the mental that lies at the basis of all modern world religions, including Christianity, and is also supported by some areas of philosophy and modern psychological science.
However, from the point of view of other psychological teachings, the psyche is the highest product of the processes of self-organization of nature and acts as an intermediary between the subjective, human and objective, external world, providing a powerful rise in the effectiveness of human activity in transforming the surrounding natural and social environment.
But one way or another, the basis of modern psychology is historically formed ideas about the correspondence of the mental and material worlds, the coexistence of internal and external, mental and physical, subjective and objective being.
Of course, before arriving at such an idea of \u200b\u200bthe essence of the psychic, knowledge about it had to go through a long path of development, which includes a number of stages. Acquaintance with the content of these stages helps to understand psychic reality deeper and, on this basis, make a conscious choice between the various ss interpretations that exist today.
The process of developing psychological knowledge was long and difficult. These difficulties were not accidental. They are associated with the specifics of the mental, which gave rise in the past and gives rise today to many problems in the development of psychological science, in particular, explains the preservation up to the present time. polytheoretical this area of \u200b\u200bknowledge.
Difficulties in the development of psychology are associated with the following features of the mental sphere:
Special location, localization object of psychological science. The physical media of this object is located not outside, but within us. Moreover, the physical carriers of mental functions are "hidden" inside us especially reliably: in the skull, in other most durable bone structures of our skeleton.
This especially reliable protection, created by nature to protect the psyche. at the same time, it significantly complicates the study of the secrets of this sphere.
The specificity of the mental world also lies in the fact that, being closely connected with the material, physical world, with a single process of self-organization for the entire universe, at the same time it is opposite to it in a number of its properties. As already noted, the psyche is distinguished by such properties as disembodiment, immateriality, invisibility. Of course, mental properties sometimes come out, they are manifested in words, gestures and actions of people and thus partially materialize.
However, between these visible, material manifestations and the mental phenomena themselves, there is always a distance, sometimes of an enormous size. It is not for nothing that some experts on the human psyche argue that language is given to us in order to hide our thoughts.
From the indicated features of the mental sphere, another one follows, which researchers constantly encountered - impossibility of accurate fixation, physical or chemical registration of mental processes occurring in the nervous system, especially in the brain, the impossibility of objectively determining the thoughts and feelings that arise within us. That is why the repeated attempts to create a so-called "lie detector" or chronograph have turned out to be unsuccessful, since they were invariably discovered. that in the process of their experimental use, these devices record only physiological processes (changes in pulse, body temperature, pressure, etc.), with which mental phenomena are associated, but not these mental phenomena themselves.
And finally, one more difficulty of cognition of psychic reality arises in connection with the impossibility of using the entire complex of our cognitive abilities to study it, since mental phenomena can neither be seen, nor smell, nor touch: they can be perceived only indirectly, speculatively, with the help of our ability for abstract thinking, since only this unique ability of ours makes it possible see the invisible.
All these features of psychic reality made the task of its study particularly difficult and led to the fact that the path of development of psychology turned out to be very long and contradictory. This path included a number of stages, each of which generated its own special form of psychological knowledge.
The study of the history of psychology, of course, cannot be reduced to a simple enumeration of certain psychological problems, ideas and perceptions proper. In order to understand them. it is necessary to understand their internal connection, the common logic of the formation of psychology as a science.
It is especially important to understand that psychology as a teaching about the human soul is always conditioned by anthropology, the doctrine of man in his entirety. Research, hypotheses, conclusions of psychology, no matter how abstract and private they may seem, imply a certain understanding essence of man, are guided by this or that image.
In turn, doctrine of man fits into general picture of the world, formed on the basis of the synthesis of knowledge, ideological attitudes of a particular historical era. Therefore, the history of the formation and development of psychological knowledge is, albeit a complex, contradictory, but quite logical process associated with a change in the understanding of the essence of a person and the formation on this basis of new explanations of his psyche.
In this process, three main historical stages are usually distinguished, which correspond to three forms of psychological knowledge:
- , or everyday, psychology;
The structure of psychological science
The historical process of development of each science is associated with its increasingly significant differentiation, which is based on the process of expanding the object of this science. As a result, modern sciences, especially fundamental ones, including psychology. represent a complex diversified system. As the structure of science becomes more complex, it becomes necessary to classify its constituent branch sciences. The classification of branch sciences is understood as their systematic division, the ordering of scientific knowledge by decomposing one or another science as a generic concept into its constituent generic concepts.
Psychology at the current level of development is a very ramified system of scientific disciplines.
They develop general problems and study the general laws of the psyche that are manifested in people, regardless of what kind of activity they are engaged in. Due to the universality of knowledge of the fundamental branches of psychology, they are united by the term "General psychology".
Studies such mental processes as sensations, perceptions, attention, memory, imagination, thinking, speech. IN personality psychology the psychic structure of the personality and the psychic properties of the personality that determine the deeds and actions of a person are studied.
In addition to general psychology, psychological science includes a number of special psychological disciplines, associated with various areas of human life and activity.
Among the special branches of psychology that study the psychological problems of specific types of activity, there are: labor psychology, educational psychology, medical psychology, legal psychology, military psychology, trade psychology and the psychology of scientific creativity, sports psychology, etc.
social Psychology.
The theory and practice of teaching and educating the younger generation is closely related to both general psychology and special branches of psychology.
genetic, differential and developmental psychology.
For a mentally competent organization of upbringing, it is necessary to know the psychological patterns of interaction between people in groups, such as a family, student and student groups. Relationships in groups are the subject of study of social psychology.
Psychology of abnormal development deals with deviations from the norm in human behavior and psyche and is extremely necessary for pedagogical work with children who are lagging behind in mental development, or pedagogically neglected children.
Combines all information related to education and upbringing. The subject of educational psychology is the psychological laws of education and upbringing of a person. Sections of educational psychology are: the psychology of learning (psychological foundations of didactics, private methods. Formation of mental actions); psychology of upbringing (psychological foundations of upbringing, psychological foundations of corrective labor pedagogy); psychology of teaching and educational work with difficult children: the psychology of the teacher).
Modern psychology is characterized by both the process of differentiation, which gives rise to numerous special branches of psychology, and the process of integration, as a result of which there is a docking of psychology with other sciences, such as, for example, through educational psychology with pedagogy.
Psychological Science Subject
The very name of psychology means that psychology is the science of the soul. The study, explanation of the soul was the first stage in its formation. So, for the first time, psychology was defined as the science of the soul. But it turned out to be quite difficult to study the soul using scientific methods. In the course of historical development, focusing on natural scientific research methods and the general scientific ideal of objectivity, psychologists abandoned the concept of the soul and began to develop programs for building psychology as a single scientific discipline based on a materialistic worldview. On this path, psychology has achieved significant success in the study of the phenomena of the human psyche: the main components of the psyche were identified, the patterns of formation of sensation and perception were studied, the types of memory, types and features of thinking were identified, psychological problems of specific types of human activity, etc.
However, as many psychologists state, the path of abandoning the concept of the soul and replacing it with the concept of the psyche ultimately turned out to be a dead end for psychology.
Throughout the XX century. both Western and Soviet psychology proceeded from the world of existence, and spiritual life was viewed as a product of “specially organized matter” - the brain and social interactions. The result of such a half-march was, as noted by B.S. Brother, not only a dead, soulless, soul-giving person as an object of research, but also a dead, soulless psychology.
No matter how psychology claims to be scientific objectivity, nevertheless, at the heart of any significant psychological concept of the 20th century, be it behaviorism or Marxist psychology, psychoanalysis or humanistic psychology, the initial image is the image of a person devoid of an immortal soul, subject to instincts, wandering in search of pleasure , pleasures, activities, self-realization, self-aggrandizement, etc.
In the course of attempts to build psychology as an independent scientific discipline on the basis of a materialistic worldview, loss of unity psychological science itself. Psychology in the XX century. is a conglomeration of facts, schools, directions and research, most often almost unrelated to each other. At one time, hopes were pinned on general psychology, called upon to play a leading role in relation to specific psychological research, but these hopes were not justified.
Currently, within the framework of psychological science, there are general psychological theories, guided by different scientific ideals, and psychological practice, based on certain psychological theories or on a number of them and developing special psychotechnics for influencing consciousness and controlling it.
The presence of disparate psychological theories has led to the problem of the subject of psychology. For the behaviorist, the subject of study is behavior, for the supporter of the theory of activity - mentally controlled activity, for the Christian psychologist - living knowledge about the genesis of sinful passions and the pastoral art of healing them, for the psychoanalyst - the unconscious, etc.
The question naturally arises: is it possible to speak of psychology as a unified science with a common subject of research, or should we recognize the presence of many psychologies?
Some scientists believe that psychology is a single science, which, like any other science, has its own special subject. Psychology as a science deals with the study of the factors of mental life, as well as the disclosure of the laws that govern mental phenomena. And no matter how difficult paths psychological thought has advanced over the centuries, mastering its subject, no matter how the knowledge about it changes and is enriched, no matter what terms it denotes, it is possible to distinguish features that characterize the actual subject of psychology, which distinguishes it from other sciences ...
Psychology is a science that studies the facts, laws and mechanisms of the psyche.
Other scientists are inclined to think that psychology is science and practice in unity, and science and practice in psychology are understood in different ways. But this means that there are many psychologies: no less than real experiments in the construction of psychological science-practice.
The restoration of a single subject of psychology and the synthesis of psychological knowledge is possible only by returning psychology to recognition of reality and the dominant role of the soul. And although the soul will remain primarily outside the framework of psychological research, its postulation, its reverent recognition, the constant need to correlate with the fact itself and the goals of its existence will inevitably change, transform the forms and essence of psychological research.
Many open-minded psychologists, both in the West and in Russia, have recognized the deep chasm that separates modern scientific psychology from the great religious systems. The wealth of deep knowledge about the human soul and consciousness accumulated in these systems over the centuries and even over millennia has not received adequate recognition and have not been studied until recently.
In recent years, there has been a convergence of the spiritual-experienced and scientific-theoretical methods of knowing the world.
The desire to go beyond the understanding of psychology as a science of the psyche, a property of the brain, is increasingly traced. Many modern psychologists consider human psychology as a psychological anthropology and speak of spirituality as the deepest essence of man. The concepts of soul and spirituality from the standpoint of today are no longer interpreted as purely figurative expressions. Spirituality includes the meaning of life, conscience, higher moral values \u200b\u200band feelings, higher interests, ideas, beliefs. And although spirituality has no direct physical correlates, except for energy, psychologists believe that spirituality can be studied within the framework of psychology.
By the end of the XX century. the need to build a unified picture of the world is realized, in which both the results of scientific knowledge of nature and man, and the fruits of a thousand-year spiritual experience would be synthesized. Physicists are the leader in this process, as has always been in the history of scientific knowledge. Following physics, scientific psychology also began to realize the need to restructure the world outlook and reach a multidimensional understanding of man.
Taking into account all of the above, psychologists come to an understanding of psychology as a science of man, his spiritual essence and psyche in their development and in all the variety of forms.
The structure of psychology as a science
Psychology at the modern level of development is a very ramified system of scientific disciplines, subdivided into fundamental and applied.
Fundamental branches of psychology develop general problems and study the general laws of the psyche that are manifested in people, regardless of what activity they are engaged in. Due to the universality of knowledge of the fundamental branches of psychology, they are united by the term "General psychology".
General psychology examines the individual, highlighting mental cognitive processes and personality in him. Psychology of cognitive processes studies such mental processes as sensation, perception, attention, memory, imagination, thinking, speech. IN personality psychology investigates the mental structure of the personality and the mental properties of the personality that determine the deeds and actions of a person.
In addition to general psychology, psychological science includes a number of special psychological disciplines at different stages of formation, associated with various areas of human life and activity.
Among the special branches of psychology that study the psychological problems of specific activities, there are: labor psychology, educational psychology, medical psychology, legal psychology, military psychology, psychology of trade, psychology of scientific creativity, psychology of sports, etc.
The psychological aspects of development are studied by developmental psychology and the psychology of abnormal development.
The psychological aspects of the relationship between the individual and society are investigated social Psychology.
The theory and practice of teaching and educating the younger generation is closely related to both general psychology and special branches of psychology.
The scientific basis for understanding the laws of mental development of a child are genetic, differential and age-related psychology. Genetic psychology studies the hereditary mechanisms of the psyche and behavior of a child. Differential psychology identifies individual differences between people and explains the process of their formation. In developmental psychology, the stages of the individual's mental development are investigated.
For a mentally competent organization of upbringing, you need to know the psychological patterns of interaction between people in groups, such as a family, student and student groups. Relationships in groups are the subject of study of the social psyche.
The psychology of abnormal development deals with deviations from the norm in the behavior and psyche of a person and is extremely necessary in pedagogical work with children who are lagging behind in mental development.
Educational psychology brings together all information related to education and upbringing. The subject of educational psychology is the psychological laws of education and upbringing of a person. The sections of educational psychology are:
- psychology of learning (psychological foundations of didactics, private methods, the formation of mental actions);
- psychology of upbringing (psychological foundations of upbringing, psychological foundations of corrective labor pedagogy);
- psychology of teaching and educational work with difficult children;
- psychology of the teacher.
Modern psychology is characterized by both the process of differentiation, which gives rise to numerous special branches of psychology, and the process of integration, as a result of which psychology is docked with other sciences, for example, through educational psychology with pedagogy.
Dictionary
Transpersonal Psychology - a direction in psychology of the XX century, founded by the American psychologist S. Grof and considering a person as a cosmic and spiritual being, inextricably linked with all of humanity and the Universe, and his consciousness as a part of the world information network.
Soviet psychology - a period in the development of Russian psychology, when Marxist-Leninist philosophy served as the ideological basis of psychological research.
Spiritually oriented psychology - a trend in modern domestic psychology, based on traditional spiritual values \u200b\u200band recognizing the reality of spiritual being.
What does psychology study? What kind of science is this? If you ask these questions to students who have not studied this science, then you can hear typical answers: "studies human behavior", "studies thoughts, feelings, desires of a person", there will certainly be a joker who will answer: "studies psychos." If you do not require strict academic and terminological literacy, then these answers can be partially recognized as close to the truth. Indeed, psychology studies all of the above and much more. Over the long history of its development, psychology has repeatedly changed the direction of its research.
Psychology is the science of the laws governing the development and functioning of the psyche as a special form of life.
Psychology as a science has special qualities that distinguish it from other disciplines. Few know psychology as a system of proven knowledge, mostly only those who are specifically engaged in it, solving scientific and practical problems. At the same time, psychology is familiar to every person as a system of life phenomena. She is presented to him in the form of his own sensations, images, ideas, phenomena of memory, thinking, speech, will, imagination, interests, motives, needs, emotions, feelings and much more. We can directly detect the main mental phenomena in ourselves and indirectly observe in other people.
Since ancient times, the needs of social life have forced a person to distinguish and take into account the peculiarities of the mental makeup of people. Apparently, people began to think about the existence of a certain spiritual principle that guides their behavior in very distant prehistoric times. The first theories put forward to explain behavior involved factors external to the person, for example, a certain "Shadow" that dwells in the body and leaves it after death, or the Gods, who were considered responsible for all human actions.
The first ideas about the psyche were associated with animism (from the Latin anima - spirit, soul) - the most ancient views, according to which everything that exists in the world has a soul. The soul was understood as an entity independent of the body that controls all living and inanimate objects.
Later, in the philosophical teachings of antiquity, psychological aspects were touched upon, which were solved in terms of idealism or in terms of materialism. So, the materialist philosophers of antiquity Democritus, Lucretius, Epicurus understood the human soul as a kind of matter, as a body formation, consisting of globular, small and most mobile atoms.
According to the ancient Greek idealist philosopher Plato (427-347 BC), who was a disciple and follower of Socrates, the soul is something divine, different from the body, and the soul in a person exists before it enters into connection with the body. She is the image and the outflow of the world soul. The soul is an invisible, sublime, divine, eternal principle. Soul and body are in a complex relationship with each other. By its divine origin, the soul is called upon to control the body, to direct the life of a person. However, sometimes the body takes the soul in its fetters.
The great philosopher Aristotle in his treatise "On the Soul" singled out psychology as a kind of field of knowledge and for the first time put forward the idea of \u200b\u200bthe indivisibility of the soul and the living body, the existence of the soul, which is in unity with the body and controls thoughts and feelings, which are based on the experience accumulated during life.
Aristotle denied the view of the soul as a substance. At the same time, he did not consider it possible to consider the soul in isolation from matter (living bodies). The soul, according to Aristotle, is incorporeal, it is the form of a living body, the cause and purpose of all its vital functions. Aristotle put forward the concept of the soul as a function of the body, and not some phenomenon external to it. The soul, or "psyche", is the engine that allows a living being to realize itself.
Thus, the soul manifests itself in various capacities for activity: nourishing, feeling, intelligent. Higher abilities arise from the lower ones and on their basis. The primary cognitive ability of a person is sensation, it takes the form of sensually perceived objects without their matter, just like "wax takes the impression of a seal without iron." Sensations leave a trace in the form of representations - images of those objects that previously acted on the senses. Aristotle showed that these images are connected in three directions: by similarity, by contiguity and contrast, thereby indicating the main types of connections - associations of mental phenomena. Aristotle believed that knowledge of a person is possible only through knowledge of the Universe and the order existing in it. Thus, at the first stage, psychology acted as a science of the soul.
In the Middle Ages, the idea was established that the soul is a divine, supernatural principle, and therefore the study of mental life should be subordinated to the tasks of theology. Only the outer side of the soul, which is turned to the material world, can yield to human judgment. The greatest mysteries of the soul are available only in religious (mystical) experience.
Since the 17th century. a new era begins in the development of psychological knowledge. In connection with the development of natural sciences, with the help of experimental methods, they began to study the laws of human consciousness. The ability to think and feel was called consciousness. Psychology began to develop as the science of consciousness. It is characterized by attempts to comprehend the human mental world mainly from general philosophical, speculative positions, without the necessary experimental base. R. Descartes (1596-1650) comes to the conclusion about the difference between the human soul and his body: "the body by its nature is always divisible, while the spirit is indivisible." However, the soul is capable of making movements in the body. This contradictory dualistic doctrine gave rise to a problem called psychophysical: how are bodily (physiological) and mental (mental) processes in a person interconnected? Descartes created a theory to explain behavior on the basis of a mechanistic model. According to this model, the information delivered by the senses is directed along the sensory nerves "holes in the brain, which these nerves expand, which allows the" animal souls "in the brain to flow through the thinnest tubes - motor nerves - into the muscles that inflate, which leads to the withdrawal of the limb that has been exposed to irritation, or forces one to perform one or another action. Thus, there was no need to resort to the soul to explain how simple behavioral acts arise. Descartes laid the foundations for the deterministic (causal) concept of behavior with its central idea of \u200b\u200bthe reflex as a natural motor response of the body to external physical irritation. This Cartesian dualism is a body, acting mechanically, and a “rational soul” that controls it, localized in the brain. Thus, the concept of "Soul" began to turn into the concept of "Mind", and later - into the concept of "Consciousness". The famous Descartes' phrase "I think, so I exist" became the basis of the postulate that the first thing that a person discovers in himself is his own consciousness. The existence of consciousness is the main and unconditional fact, and the main task of psychology is to analyze the state and content of consciousness. On the basis of this postulate, psychology began to develop - it made consciousness its subject. psychology life activity philosophical
The term “empirical psychology” was introduced by the German philosopher of the 18th century X. Wolf to designate a direction in psychological science, the main principle of which is to observe specific mental phenomena, classify them and establish a regular connection between them that can be verified through experience. The English philosopher J. Locke (1632-1704) considers the human soul as a passive but perceptive environment, comparing it to a blank board on which nothing is written. Under the influence of sensory impressions, the human soul, awakening, is filled with simple ideas, begins to think, i.e. form complex ideas. In the language of psychology, Locke introduced the concept of "association" - a connection between mental phenomena, in which the actualization of one of them entails the appearance of another. So psychology began to study how, by association of ideas, a person is aware of the world around him. The study of the relationship between the soul and the body at this time finally gives way to the study of mental activity and consciousness.
Locke believed that there are two sources of all human knowledge: the first source is objects of the external world, the second is the activity of a person's own mind. The activity of the mind, thinking is cognized with the help of a special inner feeling - reflection. Reflection, according to Locke, is “observation, to which the mind subjects its activity,” it is the focus of a person's attention on the activity of his own soul. Mental activity can proceed, as it were, on two levels: processes of the first level - perception, thought, desire (every person and child has them); processes of the second level - observation or "contemplation" of these perceptions, thoughts, desires (this is only for mature people who reflect on themselves, cognize their emotional experiences and states). This method of introspection is becoming an important means of studying the mental activity and consciousness of people.
The separation of psychology into an independent science took place in the 60s of the 19th century. It was associated with the creation of special research institutions - psychological laboratories and institutes, departments in higher educational institutions, as well as the introduction of an experiment to study mental phenomena. The first version of experimental psychology as an independent scientific discipline was the physiological psychology of the German scientist W. Wundt (1832-1920). In 1879, Wundt opened the world's first experimental psychological laboratory in Leipzig.
Soon, in 1885, V. M. Bekhterev organized a similar laboratory in Russia.
In the field of consciousness, Wundt believed, there is a special psychic causality that is subject to scientific objective research. Consciousness was divided into mental structures, the simplest elements: sensations, images and feelings. The role of psychology, according to Wundt, is to provide as detailed a description of these elements as possible. "Psychology is the science of the structures of consciousness" - this direction was called the structuralist approach. We used the method of introspection, self-observation.
In the twentieth century, psychology entered the period of creating the scientific foundations for the development of its most important problems. At present, psychology has its own special subject of study, its own specific tasks, its own research methods; it has a network of psychological institutions (institutes, laboratories, educational institutions that train psychologists) and magazines. International psychological congresses are systematically gathered, psychologists are united in scientific associations and societies. The importance of psychology as one of the most important sciences about man is now widely recognized. Each specific science differs from other sciences by the peculiarities of its subject. So, geology differs from geodesy in that, having the Earth as the subject of study, the first of them studies the composition, structure and history of the Earth, and the second - the dimensions of its shape. Elucidation of the specific features of the phenomena studied by psychology presents a significant great difficulty. Understanding these phenomena largely depends on the worldview that people adhere to when faced with the need to comprehend psychological science.
The difficulty lies primarily in the fact that the phenomena studied by psychology have long been distinguished by the human mind and separated from other manifestations of life as special phenomena. Indeed, it is quite obvious that my perception of the typewriter is something very special and different from the typewriter itself, the real object that stands in front of me on the table; my desire to go skiing is something different from a real hike; my recollection of celebrating the New Year is something different from what actually happens on New Year's Eve, etc. Thus, ideas about various categories of phenomena were gradually formed, which began to be called mental (mental functions, properties, processes, states, etc.). Their special character was seen in belonging to the inner world of a person, different from what surrounds a person and attributed to the field of mental life, opposed to real events and facts. These phenomena were grouped under the names "perception", "memory", "thinking", "will", "feelings", etc., in the aggregate, forming what is the psyche, mental, inner world of a person, his mental life, etc. Special studies have shown that the constancy of perception is not given to a person initially, from birth. It is formed gradually, according to strict laws. If there was no constancy of perception, a person would not be able to navigate in the external environment - at the slightest change in his position relative to surrounding objects, a radical change in the picture of the visible world would occur, objects would be perceived distorted. No matter how difficult paths psychological thought has advanced over the centuries, mastering its subject, no matter how the knowledge about it changes and enriches, no matter what terms it denotes (soul, consciousness, psyche, activity, etc.), it is possible to distinguish signs that characterize the own subject of psychology, distinguishing it from other sciences. The subject of psychology is the natural connection of the subject with the natural and sociocultural world, the imprinting in the system of sensory and mental images of this world, the motives that induce action, as well as in the actions themselves, the experiences of their relations to other people and to oneself, in the properties of the personality as the nucleus of this system ... Historical experience says that knowledge about the subject area of \u200b\u200bpsychology was formed and expanded due to the connection of this science with other sciences - natural, social, technical.
Psychology as an independent science emerged relatively recently - in the 19th century. It was born more than 2 thousand years ago. The term "psychology" was introduced by the German philosopher H. Wolff in 1732.
It translates as "psyche" - soul, "logos" - doctrine, word, science. Based on this, it becomes clear what psychology studies - the soul of people and animals. Or, to be more precise, initially the scientists were really looking for it, but without finding it (or rather, unable to prove where it is, measure it or somehow isolate it), they started studying the psyche, as it turned out to be more possible.
What is psyche
A person does not just exist in the world, but constantly interacts with it. And for this you need a tool. The psyche is the ability of the brain to analyze and synthesize information that comes from the environment through the senses, and respond to it accordingly. An example of her action is receiving sensations, an emotional reaction to ongoing events. That is, it is an instrument of interaction. Temperament, character and abilities also depend on the individual characteristics of mental work. This also applies to what psychology studies.
Branches of psychology
In order to understand the features of the behavioral reactions of an individual or even a group of people (age, social), one branch is not enough. Therefore, the study of a person is divided into several directions. For instance:
- general psychology, which summarizes theoretical and experimental research on the psychology of personality and the processes cognizable by it;
- (a synthesis of sociology and psychology), engaged in social research. Explores the masses, crowds, nations, groups, interpersonal relationships, leadership;
- psychodiagnostics - associated with the study of methods for recognizing the human psyche, its features.
In addition to general ones, there are also applied and specialized industries. So, there are age, pedagogical, military, medical, and many others. Perhaps this is why many people ask the question: "What does psychology study?"
Practical use
Today, the subject of this science is hundreds of different directions. Of course, common psychology is the basis for all. But recently, not so much independent directions have appeared in it, as a synthesis or fusion with other sciences (medicine, engineering, pedagogy, sociology, etc.). Understanding the question "what is studying makes it possible to apply it widely. When introducing new methods and technologies (for example, when teaching at school), psychology takes into account the peculiarities of the age of children, the correct distribution of loads so as not to overwork the delicate psyche. Psychologists help to resolve conflicts at enterprises, sometimes contribute to introduction of trainings for better preparation of staff There are also family psychologists who are involved in saving relationships or helping to survive separation, divorce.
is engaged in leadership, studying which ones make a person stand out from the crowd.
Important
The main thing that psychology studies is the properties, characteristics of temperament, inclinations and abilities of the individual. Thus, it helps a person to understand himself. This science also helps in choosing a profession, allows you to more effectively interact with people. With knowledge of psychology, it is easier to understand others, the motives of their behavior, desires. And when helping other people achieve their goals, it's hard not to become a successful person, isn't it?
Literally translated, psychology is the science of the soul (psyche- soul, logos - concept, doctrine), thus, psychology is the science of the psyche and mental phenomena.
What is psyche? Material scientists define it as a special form of reflection of the surrounding world, characteristic of highly organized matter.
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Reflection is understood as the ability of material objects in the process of interaction with other objects to reproduce in their changes some of the features and features of the phenomena affecting them.
It should be noted here that the psyche arises where there is a rather complexly organized nervous system, which means that mental phenomena are characteristic not only of humans, but also of animals. Moreover, science does not exclude the possibility that over time, artificially complex computer systems can be created in which mental phenomena can arise.
The peculiarity of psychology that determines its difficulties is immateriality of mental phenomena,which makes them inaccessible for direct study. The psyche cannot be seen, heard, tasted or touched. In its study, neither a super-powerful microscope nor the most sensitive methods of chemical analysis will help. We can investigate the psyche only indirectly, drawing certain conclusions about mental phenomena only on the basis of external, material signs of their manifestations. This is the complexity of psychology as a science, but that's why it is fascinating.
Psychology - the science of psyche and mental phenomena.
Psyche - a special form of reflection of the surrounding world, inherent in highly organized matter (man and animals). For a person with the highest form of psyche - consciousness, another definition of the psyche is given.
Human psyche Is a subjective image of the objective world that arises in the process of human interaction with his environment and other people.
Features of psychology as a science
The differences between psychology and other sciences are shown in Fig. 1.1.
Fig. 1.1. Features of psychology as a science
The main directions of psychology
The main directions of psychology are shown in Fig. 1.2.
Fig. 1.2. The main directions of psychology
Freudianism and neo-Freudianism:the predominant role of the subconscious in the mental life of a person.
Behaviorism:behavior as the main object of research and refusal from attempts to study the mechanisms of mental activity.
Gestalt psychology:an attempt to explain the phenomena of mental life based on the concept of an integral image (gestalt), which cannot be reduced to the sum of individual elements of perception.
Humanistic psychology - perceives a person as an active, free, creative and autonomous subject with a desire for self-realization.
Psychology subject
The subject of psychology has changed in the course of its formation as a separate science. At first, the subject of her study was the soul, then consciousness, then - human behavior and his unconscious, etc., depending on the general approaches that psychologists adhered to at certain stages of the development of science.
Currently, there are two views on the subject of psychology.
In the first of them, the subject of study of psychology is mental processes, mental statesand mental properties of a person.
According to the second subject of this science are and mechanisms of mental activity.
Consider the first approach to the subject of psychology (Fig. 1.3).
Fig. 1.3. Subject of study of psychology (first version)
Mental processesact as primary regulators of behavior, they have a beginning, a course and an end. Usually there are three types of them: cognitive, emotional and volitional. The main types of mental processes are given in table. 1.1.
Table 1.1. Types of mental processes
In addition to the above, there is another classification of mental processes. According to her, mental processes are divided into individual and group, and then - into internal and external (Fig. 1.4).
Fig. 1.4. Varieties of mental processes
On the basis of mental processes, mental states,which characterize the state of the psyche as a whole. These include, for example, states of activity or passivity, vigor or depression, working capacity or fatigue, irritability, absent-mindedness, good or bad mood. Mental states affect the course of mental processes. They can be external and internal, individual and group (Fig. 1.5).
Fig. 1.5. Varieties of mental states
The following examples can speak of the degree of influence of negative mental states:
♦ such a group mental state as panic is the cause of financial crises, defaults and bank failures;
♦ another mental state - conflict - can lead to the disruption of business negotiations or the destruction of family relationships.
Note that both of these states are of an intermediate nature, since, on the one hand, they are internal mental experiences, and on the other hand, they have a pronounced external manifestation.
In addition to negative group psychological states, there are also positive ones, for example, the cohesion of the enterprise team or a favorable psychological climate within the organization.
The third group of mental phenomena identified in the first approach is mental properties,which are characterized by greater stability and constancy. They determine the uniqueness of a person and are the basis of his personality. When we call a person brave, hot-tempered, honest or gambling, then these words describe exactly the stable properties of the personality.
Some authors believe that within the framework of this classification, one more type of mental phenomena can be additionally distinguished: mental education - what becomes the result of the development of the human psyche. The latter are formed in the process of acquiring life and professional experience by a person. These include: knowledge, skills, abilities, habits, attitudes, views, beliefs, etc.
According to the second approach, the subject of psychology is facts of mental life, psychological lawsand mechanisms of mental activity(fig. 1.6).
Fig. 1.6. Psychology Subject (second version)
TO facts of mental lifecan include the speed of the sensorimotor reaction, some processes of sensation and perception of reality (for example, optical illusions), facts of psychological protection of established beliefs, emotional reactions that arise when new information arrives, etc. A mental fact (optical illusion) is shown in Fig. 1.7: At first glance, it seems that the upper segment is larger than the lower one, although they are equal to each other.
An example mental lawis the Weber-Fechner law concerning the relative thresholds of sensations: "the intensity of sensation is proportional to the logarithm of the force of stimulation."
Fig. 1.7. An example of an optical illusion
Another example: the law of change in the rate of development of a motor skill. In fig. 1.8 shows an exponential change in the speed of development of a motor skill - the speed of working on the keyboard: at first, the result grows very quickly, and then slows down.
Fig. 1.8. Motor skill curve
Mechanismsmental phenomena are the most difficult to identify and investigate. To date, they have been little studied, but the progress of psychology is associated with this direction. An example is the emergence of a feeling of pleasure when the electrical activity of certain centers of the hypothalamus in the diencephalon is increased.
The object and tasks of psychology
The main task of psychologyhow science is study of the objective laws of the formation, development and manifestation of mental phenomena and processes.
The particular tasks of psychology are:
♦ study of the mechanisms of mental phenomena and processes;
♦ analysis of the patterns of development of mental phenomena and processes in the process of ontogenesis, social interaction of people and labor activity;
♦ assistance in the introduction of knowledge of psychological science into the practice of life and work of people.
Concerning objectpsychology, then in its definition we encounter some difficulties. It is usually considered that the objects of science are the carriers of those phenomena and processes that this science investigates. Thus, a person must be recognized as an object of psychology. However, according to the ethical standards of domestic methodology, a person cannot be an object, since he is a subject of cognition. To get out of this terminological contradiction, it is possible to designate the object of general psychology as the psyche in all the diversity of its manifestation in the process of interaction between the organism and the surrounding world.
1.2. The place of psychology in the system of sciences. Branches of psychological science
1.3. Methodological principles of psychology. Psychology methods
1.1. How to understand another person's behavior? Why do people have different abilities? What is “soul” and what is its nature? These and other questions have always occupied the minds of people, and over time, interest in a person and his behavior has constantly increased.
A rational approach to understanding the world is based on the fact that the reality around us exists independently of our consciousness, can be studied empirically, and the observed phenomena are fully explainable from a scientific standpoint.
By modern science, man, firstly, is studied as a representative of a biological species; second, he is viewed as a member of society; thirdly, the objective activity of a person is studied; fourthly, the laws of the development of a particular person are studied.
Psychology studies this inner world of human mental phenomena, whether or not they are aware of it.
The word "psychology" in translation from ancient Greek literally means "science of the soul" (psyche - "soul", logos - "Concept", "teaching"). In scientific use, the term "psychology" appeared for the first time in the 16th century. Initially, he belonged to a special science, which was engaged in the study of the so-called mental, or mental, phenomena, that is, those that each person easily discovers in his own mind as a result of self-observation. Later, in the XVII-XIX centuries. the field studied by psychology is expanding and includes not only conscious but also unconscious phenomena.
Concept "psychology" has both scientific and everyday meaning. In the first case, it is used to designate the corresponding scientific discipline, in the second - to describe the behavior or mental characteristics of individuals and groups of people. Therefore, to one degree or another, each person gets acquainted with "psychology" long before its systematic study.
Psychology - the science of the laws of the emergence, functioning and development of the psyche. The psyche cannot be reduced simply to the nervous system. Mental properties are the result of the neurophysiological activity of the brain, however, they contain the characteristics of external objects, and not internal physiological processes with the help of which the mental arises. Transformations of signals that take place in the brain are perceived by a person as events playing out outside him, in external space and the world. The brain secretes the psyche, thought is similar to how the liver secretes bile. The disadvantage of this theory is that they identify the psyche with nervous processes, do not see the qualitative differences between them.
Consequently,objects Russian psychology is currently the system of mental phenomena of living beings (people and animals), as well as the psychology of large (social, ethnic, religious, etc.) and small (corporate, industrial, etc.) groups of people. In turn, hersubject are the patterns of formation, functioning and development of the named mental and psychological (socio-psychological) phenomena.
The objects and subject matter of psychology determine the list of scientific tasks to be solved within its framework.
Thus,psychology is the science of the psyche and mental phenomena. In order to answer this question, it is necessary to construct a classification of mental phenomena. Animals also have psychic phenomena (of course, at a different level of organization). Therefore, psychology, studying man, is also interested in the psyche of animals: how it arises and changes in the process of evolution of the animal world, what are the reasons for the difference between the human psyche and the psyche of other living beings.
In order to engage in any activity, communicate with other people, in order to navigate the world around, a person first of all needs to know it. Psychology studies what properties of reality a person learns through mental processes - sensations, perception, thinking, imagination, etc. Psychology also considers the psychological characteristics of various types of activity and communication and their impact on the psyche.
Although mental phenomena obey general laws, they are individual for each person. Therefore, psychology studies the individual psychological characteristics of people, their personality, motives of behavior, temperament and character. We will divide mental phenomena into three main classes: mental processes, mental statesand mental properties of a person.
Zthe tasks of psychology are mainly reduced to the following:
Learn to understand the essence of mental phenomena and their patterns;
Learn to manage them;
To use the knowledge gained in order to increase the efficiency of those branches of practice, at the intersection with which already formed sciences and branches lie.
The system of mental phenomena studied by modern psychology.
Mental phenomena are the totality of all phenomena and processes that reflect the main content of the human psyche and that psychology studies as a science.
1 TO cognitive mental processesinclude mental processes associated with the perception and processing of information. They are divided into: cognitive, emotional, strong-willed.
2. Under mental propertiespersonality, it is customary to understand the most essential personality traits that provide a certain quantitative and qualitative level of human activity and behavior. Mental properties include focus, temperament, abilities and character.
3. Mental states are a certain level of working capacity and quality of functioning of the human psyche, characteristic at a particular moment in time (rise, depression, fear, cheerfulness, despondency, etc.)
The phenomena studied by psychology are associated not only with a specific person, but also with groups. Mental phenomena associated with the life of groups and collectives are studied in detail within the framework of social psychology.
All group mental phenomena can also be divided into mental processes, mental states and mental properties. In contrast to individual mental phenomena, mental phenomena of groups and collectives have a clearer division into internal and external.
The collective mental processes that act as the primary factor in the regulation of the existence of a collective or group include communication, interpersonal perception, interpersonal relations, the formation of group norms, intergroup relationships, etc. The mental states of a group include conflict, cohesion, psychological climate, openness or closeness of the group , panic, etc. Among the most significant mental properties of the group include organization, style of leadership, efficiency.
1.2. So, for a long time, being one of the sections philosophy,psychology inevitably took from this science fundamentally important theoretical provisions that determine the approach to solving problems. Thus, philosophy is the methodological basis of psychology.
The link between psychology and natural sciences- biology, physiology, chemistry, physics, etc., with the help of which it is possible to study the physiological and biological processes of the brain that underlie the psyche.
Psychology is brought closer to humanities(sociology, history, linguistics, art history, etc.) the study of the interaction of the individual and his immediate environment; interest in the peculiarities of the mental, mental make-up of a person in various historical epochs; the role of language in the cultural and mental development of a person, the problem of creativity.
The link between psychology and pedagogy.It is possible to effectively teach and educate only on the basis of knowledge of the laws according to which the human psyche develops.
The connections of psychology with medicine.These sciences find common points of contact in the study of the problem of mental disorders, the psychological substantiation of the peculiarities of the interaction between the doctor and the patient, the diagnosis and treatment of a number of diseases.
The relationship between psychology and technical sciencesmanifests itself, on the one hand, in identifying the optimal psychological conditions for the interaction of a person and a machine, on the other, in the development of technical means, devices for studying the manifestations of the psyche.
Modern psychology is among the sciences, occupying an intermediate position between the philosophical sciences, on the one hand, natural - on the other, social - on the third. This is explained by the fact that the focus of her attention is always the person, who is also studied by the above sciences, but in other aspects. It is known that philosophy and its constituent part - the theory of knowledge (epistemology) solves the question of the relationship of the psyche to the surrounding world and interprets the psyche as a reflection of the world, emphasizing that matter is primary, and consciousness is secondary. Psychology clarifies the role played by the psyche in human activity and development.
According to the classification of sciences by academician A. Kedrov, psychology occupies a central place not only as a product of all other sciences, but also as a possible source of explanation for their formation and development.
Fig. one... A. Kedrov's classification
The structure of modern psychology includes a wide range of branches of psychological science.
So, the peculiarities of the psyche of animals are studied by zoopsychology. The human psyche is studied by other branches of psychology: child psychology studies the development of consciousness, mental processes, activities, the entire personality of a growing person, the conditions for accelerating development. Social psychology studies the socio-psychological manifestations of a person's personality, his relationship with people, with a group, psychological compatibility of people, socio-psychological manifestations in large groups (the action of radio, press, fashion, rumors on various communities of people). Educational psychology studies the patterns of personality development in the process of teaching and upbringing. It is possible to single out a number of branches of psychology that study the psychological problems of specific types of human activity: labor psychology examines the psychological characteristics of a person's labor activity, the laws governing the development of labor skills. Engineering psychology studies the patterns of interaction between humans and modern technology in order to use them in the practice of designing, creating and operating automated control systems, new types of technology. Aviation, space psychology analyzes the psychological characteristics of the activities of a pilot, astronaut. Medical psychology studies the psychological characteristics of a doctor's activities and patient behavior, develops psychological methods of treatment and psychotherapy. Pathopsychology studies deviations in the development of the psyche, the disintegration of the psyche in various forms of cerebral pathology. Legal psychology studies the psychological characteristics of the behavior of participants in criminal proceedings (psychology of testimony, psychological requirements for interrogation, etc.), psychological problems of behavior and the formation of the personality of a criminal. Military psychology studies human behavior in combat.
1.3. Generally methodology determines those principles, techniques, which are guided by a person in their activities.
Domestic psychology singles out the following methodological principles of materialistic psychology:
1. Principle determinism,which is used to analyze the nature and essence of mental phenomena when considering the latter in connection with the phenomena of the external world. According to this principle, the psyche is determined by the way of life and changes with changes in external conditions, being at the same time a determinant of human behavior and activity.
2. Principle unity of consciousness and activity,asserting that consciousness and activity are in an indissoluble unity, which is expressed in the fact that consciousness and in general all mental properties of a person are not only manifested, but also formed in activity. This principle makes it possible, when studying an activity, to identify those psychological regularities that ensure the success of achieving its goal.
3.Principle developmentmeans that the manifestations of the psyche can be correctly understood if they are considered in continuous development as a process and result of activity.
Methodological principles are embodied in special empirical methods of psychology, with the help of which essential facts, patterns and mechanisms of the psyche are revealed.
TO basic methodspsychological research includes observation and experiment.
Observationas a method of psychology is to fix the manifestations of mental phenomena in behavior on the basis of their direct perception.
Scientific observation is undertaken with a strictly defined goal, predetermined situations and behavioral features that should become the object of study, as well as a developed system for fixing and recording results. In this case, it is important that several people participate in the observation, and the final estimate should be the average of the observations. These measures are taken to reduce the influence of the observer's characteristics on the perception process.
There are the following types of observation:
non-standardized,when the researcher uses a general observation plan;
standardized,in which the registration of facts is based on detailed observation schemes, predetermined patterns of behavior.
Depending on the position of the observer, an observation is distinguished:
- included,when the researcher is a member of the group he is observing;
- simple,when behavioral features are recorded from the side. This is a passive method of obtaining psychological facts, since the researcher cannot influence the course of events or repeat them. Using this method, it is difficult to establish the exact reason for an act, an action, since only their external manifestations are recorded. At the same time, the passivity of the observer allows one to study behavior in natural conditions without distorting the natural course of events as a result of interference, as can happen in an experiment.
Experimentdiffers from observation primarily in that it involves the purposeful organization of the research situation by the psychologist; this makes it possible to relatively strictly control the conditions of its conduct, not only to describe psychological facts, but also to explain the reasons for their occurrence.
This advantage of the experiment often turns into a disadvantage: it is difficult to organize an experimental study so that the subject does not know about it. A person's knowledge that he is the subject of study, as a rule, causes stiffness of the subject, anxiety, etc., especially if the study is carried out in special conditions, for example, in an equipped laboratory (laboratory experiment).
Therefore, a natural experiment is often used, in which the researcher actively influences the situation, but in forms that do not violate its naturalness, for example, in the process of a person's labor activity.
In statingexperiment check the presence of a connection between certain facts or phenomena. Formativean experiment involves an active, purposeful influence of the experimenter on the subject in order to form his psyche.
In addition to the main ones in psychology, auxiliary methods are distinguished:
interview- collection of primary verbal information using a pre-compiled set of questions in the process of direct (interview) or mediated (questioning) contact between the researcher and the researcher;
tests- a system of standardized tasks, allowing to measure the level of development of a certain characteristic of a person - intelligence, creativity, etc.;
study of products of activity- quantitative and qualitative analysis of various documentary sources (diaries, videos, newspapers, magazines, etc.).
Depending on the tasks of a particular study, the methods of psychology are embodied in private methods (for example, the observation method is implemented in different ways during the study of the work collective and the study group).
The degree of reliability of the results of the application of the technique largely depends on the conditions in which the study is organized (time of day, the presence or absence of extraneous noise, the behavior of the researcher, the state of health of the subject, etc.).