In any language there are basic laws on which grammatical rules are “strung”. For example, one of these basic provisions in English is the following law:
Every English sentence has a subject and a predicate.
It does not matter in what time (present, past or future), in what voice (real or passive) the sentence is written, in an affirmative or negative form - the law is the same for all sentences - the subject and predicate must be present in the sentence.
The second law states:
Sentences in English are built in strict word order.
However, there are three cases of constructing sentences that, at first glance, do not fit into the law on the firm word order and the presence of subject and predicate.
1. Inversion.The word "inversion" itself means that the sentences are not built according to the "standard", that is, not a strict word order. There are several options for inversion, one of which is known to everyone. This is the phrase “there is / are…”;
2. The imperative mood.
Imperative sentences express an urge to action, a request or an order and begin with a verb. In such sentences there is no explicit subject and cannot be, but the person to whom they are addressing is always implied, that is, we do not pronounce or write it, but it is “invisibly” present.
3. Impersonal offers.
In impersonal sentences there is no "face", that is, there is no subject. And in some sentences there is no predicate either. But the English language still does not deviate from the basic law, and the British “invented” the formal subject, this pronoun “it”, which plays the role of the subject, but at the same time is not translated and does not carry any semantic load.
The pronoun in the function of the formal subject is used with some verbs in the PASSIVE voice. Such passive phrases correspond to indefinitely personal phrases in the Russian language.
Here are some examples of Russian vaguely personal proposals:
Reported that it will snow tomorrow. (Who reported? There is no subject, but it is already clear to us that these are, most likely, meteorologists)
Are expecting that the delegation would arrive in an hour. (Who is expecting? Apparently these are the ones who invited the delegation)
It is known that Columbus discovered America. (who knows? To all people)
And to translate vaguely personal sentences of this type into English? These are exactly the passive constructions with the formal subject “it”.
For example:
It was reported that… \u003d Reported that…
It is expected that ... \u003d Expect that ...
It is known that ... \u003d It is known that ...
Now we need to figure out which verbs are involved in such a passive construction. They can be roughly divided into several groups.
To the first group includes verbs that have the meanings of ASSUMPTION and EXPECTATIONS in this construction. I advise you to memorize these six verbs, which are united in a passive construction with the formal subject “it” in a common sense. I will write all six verbs with translations and in a passive construction with the formal subject “it”.
to ASSUME \u003d to assume; to BE ASSUMED -\u003e It is assumed that ... \u003d believe (assume) that ...;
to SUPPOSE \u003d to suppose; to BE SUPPOSED -\u003e It is supposed that… \u003d believe (suggest) that…;
to EXPECT \u003d expect, guess; to BE EXPECTED -\u003e It is expected that… \u003d expect that…;
to THINK \u003d to believe, to think; to BE THOUGHT -\u003e It is thought that ... \u003d think (believe) that ...;
to PRESUME \u003d to assume, assume, believe; to BE PRESUMED -\u003e It is presumed that ... suppose (believe, admit) that ...;
The second group is the verbs "speaking", that is, verbs that have the meaning of PRESENTATION.
to STATE \u003d report, approve; to BE STATED -\u003e It is stated that… \u003d report (claim) that…;
to REPORT \u003d to report; to BE REPORTED -\u003e It is reported that… \u003d are reporting that…;
to SAY \u003d speak, report, assert; to BE SAID -\u003e It is said that… \u003d they say (report, assert) that…;
to RUMOUR \u003d to spread rumors, tell the news; to BE RUMORED -\u003e It is rumored that… it is rumored that;
The third group of verbs makes sense: install, detect.
to FIND \u003d find, discover, install; to BE FOUND -\u003e It was found that ... it was found that ...;
to ESTIMATE \u003d calculate, set; to BE ESTIMATED -\u003e It was estimated that… \u003d it was estimated that…;
The fourth group of verbs are verbs related to sight and hearing.
to HEAR \u003d to hear; to BE HEARD -\u003e It is heard that… -\u003e heard that…;
to SEE \u003d to see; to BE SEEN -\u003e It is seen that -\u003e saw that ...;
to SHOW \u003d show; to BE SHOWN -\u003e It is shown that -\u003e it was shown that;
to OBSERVE \u003d to observe; to BE OBSERVED -\u003e It is observed that -\u003e it is observed that ...;
to WATCH \u003d watch; to BE WATCHED -\u003e It is watched that -\u003e it is watched that;
The fifth group is the verbs of mental activity.
to KNOW \u003d to know; to BE KNOWN -\u003e It is known that… -\u003e it is known that;
to UNDERSTAND \u003d to understand; to BE UNDERSTOOD -\u003e It is understood that… -\u003e it is understood that;
I will write a few sentences in English for example:
It is expected that they will return at the end of August. \u003d They are expected to be back by the end of August.
It was regarded that the findings were of exceptional value. \u003d The findings were found to be of exceptional importance.
It is said that this book is in great demand. \u003d It is said that this book is in great demand.
It iwas reported that the flood had not caused much damage to the crop. \u003d Reported that the flood did not cause much damage to the crop.
It has been found that this mineral water is healthful. \u003d This mineral water has been found to have health benefits.
If this type of passive phrase is preceded by “AS” \u003d “HOW”, then the formal subject “it” can be omitted.
As is known ... \u003d as known ...;
As is believed ... \u003d as believed ...;
As is expected… \u003d as expected…;
This turnover serves to highlight any member of the sentence (subject, addition or circumstance). In this turnover, the allocated term of the sentence is placed between It is and that ( who ) ... Translation of this phrase into Russian begins with the word exactly... We can say that both parts of the turnover It is and that correspond to the Russian word exactly.
Note... In English, there is a construction like:
It is necessary that - it is necessary that ...
It is important that - it is important that ...
in which between Itis and that there is an adjective. However, one adjective does not stand out in either English or Russian. You can select only subject, addition or circumstance!
For example: we have a sentence - After weaning the foul is fed good legume hay.
Select the subject (1), addition (2) or circumstance (3):
Task number 22.
Indicate in which proposals the reinforcing structure is used:
It is at the age of 3 years that the young stallion is first used.
It is the first week of pig's life that is especially critical.
It is important that beef breeds mature early.
It is due to the rotational grazing that the sheep are always eating fresh and clean grass.
It is good that the veterinarian has examined the lambs.
It is young boars that should be used as sparingly as possible.
§ 23. The verb should after a construction like it is necessary that ...
Union that in construction It is necessary that ... translated by the word so that (but not what). Word should after this construction is not translated.
Therefore, the verb should has 2 main meanings:
must / should (Cm. § 1)
should
not translated (See § 18 and § 23)
Task number 23
ashould does not translate:
It is warm milk that should be given to the calves.
It is important that clean fresh water should be available for laying hens all the time.
It is clean fresh water that should be available for laying hens all the time.
If we gave grain to laying hens twice a day, we should obtain better results.
Grains should be given to the laying hens twice a day.
b) Indicate in which sentences the verbshould has the meaningmust .
features of their translation
One of the phenomena that cause difficulties in translation are emphatic constructions. Emotional coloring and expressiveness of texts is created by various emphatic means.
Any language has in its stock a number of means, which are assigned the role of amplification, that is, emphasis. In English, emphatic remedies can be divided into:
- grammatical, using grammatical means for this purpose;
- lexical, using certain lexical means, that is, words and phrases, to give an expression an emotional coloring;
- lexical and grammatical, that is, they simultaneously use lexical and grammatical means.
The most common grammatical means of expressing emphase is inversion. Inversion (from Lat. Inversio - turning, permutation) is a violation of the usual order of words in a sentence. Inversion can be used in a number of cases.
1. When strengthening and emphasizing the meaning of a secondary member of a sentence (usually circumstances), the highlighted member of the sentence, together with the amplifying word preceding it, is brought forward and placed before the subject, which entails an inversion of the predicate:
Here the usual word order: subject - predicate - addition - circumstance.
Here is the inversion: amplifying word - circumstance - 1st part of predicate - subject - 2nd part of predicate - addition.
The main amplifying and restrictive words that can cause predicate inversion:
not only ... but also |
not only ... but also |
so that |
|
hardly (scarcely). ... ... when |
barely ... how |
no sooner. ... ... than |
as soon as |
only, only when |
|
not; and also ... not, and ... |
|
no one; and |
|
no no … |
In the following examples, the predicate consists of two or three parts, with the first part of the predicate before the subject, and the second after it.
If the predicate is expressed by one semantic verb (that is, if this verb is in Present or Past Indefinite), and highlighting the circumstance requires inversion of the predicate, then the first part of the predicate (before the subject) is replaced by the auxiliary verb to do in the required time, person and number.
Please note that the auxiliary verb do, used in predicate inversion, is not translated into Russian.
2. To strengthen the assertion expressed by the predicate in present tenses and Past Simple, the auxiliary verb to do is used, which in the required tense, person and number is placed directly before the semantic verb, used in the form of an infinitive without the particle to. Strengthening is conveyed into Russian by the words "really", "undoubtedly", "unconditionally", "all the same", "in fact".
Now I see that she does know the Now I see that she
really |
knows the subject |
|||
Most authorities agree that catalysts do |
Most |
|||
in some manner combine with the |
specialists |
agree |
||
substance or substances upon which |
catalysts |
really |
||
their catalytic influence is exerted. |
interact somehow |
|||
with a substance or substances on |
||||
distributed by |
||||
catalytic action. |
||||
Inversion can also become a lexico-grammatical means of expressing emphase, when one or more elements of a statement are highlighted with the help of inversion. When translating emphatic sentences with inversion into Russian, you can use either lexical means (amplifier words) or syntactic means (changing the structure of a sentence), depending on the context.
Some other emphatic constructions of the English language include the following types:
1. Allocation of the subject, direct and indirect additions and circumstances (emphatic construction "it is... That, which, who, whom"). The combination "it is ... that" is used to highlight one of the members of the sentence. The distinguished member of the sentence is placed between two parts of the structure, which in form is a complex sentence. The construction “it is… that” is not translated into Russian, it only indicates the boundaries of the selected part of the sentence. In Russian, such sentences correspond to a simple sentence, in which the amplifying words “exactly”, “just”, “only” (more often when highlighting a time circumstance), “only” are added before the highlighted member; in sentences with negation - "not at all", "not at all".
It is language that enables us to |
|||||
communicate with each other. |
opportunity |
chat friend with |
|||
It is when men begin to use tools for |
Just when people start |
||||
social production that they also begin to |
use |
||||
public |
production, |
||||
also start talking. |
|||||
It was the Dutch physicist, Christian |
None other than the Dutch physicist |
|||
Huygens, who first offered an |
Christian |
|||
explanation for the phenomena. |
proposed |
interpretation |
||
It is these special properties of sound |
special |
properties |
||
that are the subject of the present |
are the topic |
|||
Please note that if after the emphatic it is ... there is the word only or another amplifying word, then it is used instead of "exactly" when translating the entire sentence.
It was only with the help of a small Lantern that we managed to find the box. managed to find the box.
2. The same emphatic model is often used with a verb in a negative form in combination with the conjunctions not till, not until, which, despite the negative form, has a positive meaning and is usually translated into Russian using amplifying adverbs "only after ..." , "only when...".
It was not until Einstein discovered the |
Only when Einstein |
|
connection between gravitation and |
the relationship between gravity and |
|
inertia that the mystery Newton could |
by inertia, the mystery has been solved, |
|
not understand was solved. |
which Newton could not understand. |
|
It was not until about 1911 that a first |
Only after 1911 by Rutherford |
|
really successful theory of atomic |
the first |
truly |
structure was suggested by Rutherford. |
successful theory of the structure of the atom. |
|
3. A similar emphatic model is a complex sentence, the parts of which are related to each other as the subject and addition of a simple sentence: What ... [main sentence] is (was, will be) ... [subordinate clause].
4. Sentences with double negation are also emphatic. When they are transmitted into Russian, the technique of an antonymic translation is used, that is, a negative statement in the original language becomes affirmative in the target language.
Negation not, used before an adjective or adverb with negative prefixes un-, in-, il-, im-, ir-, dis-, etc. has an amplifying meaning, and the whole combination usually corresponds to the Russian "quite, very, quite + adjective (adverb)".
In some cases, it is also possible to translate "not ... not" ("does not seem inevitable").
The combination not + without + has a similar meaning.
noun
It is not without significance that ... It is also very important that ...
The negation not can be combined with a negative adjective (participle or adverb) that does not have a negative prefix. It is translated in the same way as in the first case.
[written] not without humor).
Combination by no means + negative prefix + adjective
(adverb) as a whole means "not at all ..., not at all ...", but in each case it is translated depending on the general style of the sentence.
5. Of particular difficulty for translation are sentences in which the negation no is combined with an adjective or adverb in a comparative degree. To convey emphasis in this case, most often it is necessary to rebuild the sentence, abandon the comparative degree and resort to lexical compensation by adding amplifying words or emotionally colored words.
6. Negative constructions with certain lexical accompaniments, for example, the amplifying adverb too before an adjective or adverb, are also emphatic. In this case, the emphasis is also translated using the technique of lexical addition.
The danger of greenhouse effect cannot be too often emphasized.
It is necessary constantly (relentlessly)point out the danger of global warming for humanity.
It should be borne in mind that the above models and their translation options are not exhaustive, and the methods of their translation depend on the context and semantic load of a particular text or speech.
Translate the following sentences, paying attention to the amplifying do.
1. The above law does hold.
2. These molecules are too small to be seen, even with the microscope, but strong experimental evidence seems to show that they do exist.
3. The formation of ozone during the electrolysis of water does not change the weight of the gas collected at the positive pole but it does decrease the volume.
4. We were discussing so far what happens to a body when forces do not act on it. Let us now consider what happens when forces do act on it.
5. Though some substances (e.g. sand) seem to be very nearly insoluble, water does dissolve most things to some extent.
6. This field does not affect the forward motion of the electrons but does act upon the transverse motion.
7. Copper does not combine with oxygen when cold, but it does so slowly when heated.
8. The beta-rays which do pass through the aluminum do not ionize the gas as profusely as do the alpha-rays.
9. Most authorities agree that catalysts do in some manner combine with the substance or substances upon which their catalytic influence is exerted.
II. Translate the following sentences. Indicate what caused the reverse word order.
1. Perhaps nowhere have been achieved better results as in this field of science.
2. Not only does Н 2 О2 act as an oxidizing agent but it also acts as a reducing agent.
3. Not until Dalton made his famous discovery did scientists realize the importance of this law.
4. Nowhere can we see such rapid progress as in radio engineering.
5. Not only does chlorine unite with gaseous hydrogen, but it will sometimes take hydrogen from other elements.
6. Only upon the adsorption of larger amounts was the sensitivity again lowered.
7. No sooner has the current started running in one direction than back it comes again.
8. Of great significance, however, is the fact that a few of particles are deflected through large angles.
9. Perhaps never was the making of an important invention shared by so many persons distributed so widely over the world.
10.Carbon dioxide does not burn, nor does it support combustion.
11.The Moon having no atmosphere, there can be no wind, neither can there be any noise, for sound is carried by the air.
12. It is incorrect to say that an element is that which cannot be broken up into anything simpler. Nor can the electron be regarded as a chemical element.
13 The ancients had no knowledge of stellar distances, neither was there then any means by which they could determine them.
14.Hardly had Java been introduced when the advanced manufactures began moving it into the mobile phones.
III. Translate the following sentences, paying attention to double negation.
1. The case is not improbable.
2. Mars and Venus have atmospheres not dissimilar to ours.
3. River and lake deposits also not uncommonly contain remains of organisms which inhabited waters.
4. It seems not at all unlikely that many of the lower animal forms also have the power to make a similar distinction.
5. The advances of modern sciences in the production of a wide range of experimental temperatures are thus seen to be not inconsiderable.
6. After some not inconsiderable algebraic transformations the following are obtained which specify the optimum conditions.
7. It is not unwise to provide more than one car for a test drive.
IV. Translate the following sentences, paying attention to the emphatic combinations it is ... that (who, which) and it is not until ...
1. It is these special properties of sound that are the subject of the present chapter.
2. It was not until about 1911 that a first really successful theory of atomic structure was suggested by Rutherford.
3. It was not until Einstein discovered the connection between gravitation and inertia that the mystery Newton could not understand was solved.
4. Radioactive phenomena occur within the nucleus, and it is here that mass and positive charge resides.
5. A solenoid carrying a current behaves just like a magnet. It was the great French physicist Ampere who first showed this to be the case.
6. It is just energy which the atom thus yields up that is held to account for the radiation.
7. It was carbon dioxide emission reduction that they were concerned about.
V. Translate the following sentences. Determine in what ways one or another member of the proposal is highlighted in them.
1. Not only did the newly discovered electron provide an entity which was assumed to be a constituent of all atoms, but it also provided a natural unit of electric charge.
2. Positrons have only a short period of existence after their formation. It is for this reason that the positive electron had proved so difficult to detect.
3. Incomplete though these figures are, they give more information in several respects than has before been available.
4. Satisfactory as this theory may be in many respects it is far from being probable.
5. Not all substances separate from solution in the crystalline state: for instance, wax dissolves in petrol, but on evaporating the solvent we do not get crystals of wax, nor is glass crystalline.
6. It can only have been the close chemical similarity of zirconium and hafnium which prevented the isolation of the latter by chemical means at a much earlier date.
7. Inserted in the circuit thus created is an instrument, called a galvanometer, diagrammed as a circle with an arrow that will indicate the passage of electric current through it and the two wires.
8. In short, it is practically impossible to design a machine so specialized that it will have value only with respect to the field of application originally intended. Nor is there any computer which is superior to any other computer with respect to every problem.
9. It is from experiments on solubility of gases in liquids that Dalton appears
first to have derived direct evidence in favor of this view.
10.The particles of water grow larger as condensation continues and ultimately become rain drops. Not until then do they fall earthward with an appreciable velocity.
11.So slight are the differences between the members of division A and B in the Periodic Table that the division into subgroups is scarcely necessary except for convenience.
12.The value of this mass would not be affected by any systematic error common to all the observations not even by such an error which varied uniformly with the time. Nor would small errors in the adopted elements of the sun have any effect upon result.
13.At first it is only the molecules which terminate the longer paths that are ionized by collisions.
14.Prominent among the confirmations of Einstein`s hypothesis is the work related to the “photoelectric effect”.
15 The “quant” theory, useful as it has proved itself does not yet possess the assured position of the atomic theory of matter.
16 The values \u200b\u200bso estimated were not so high as we now know them to be, nor were they always accepted, but recognition of the polymeric nature of proteins is as old as the peptide theory.
17.Not only are perfect crystals an unattainable ideal, but they would be completely useless for most research studies.
18.Indeed, it is not unusual to find evidence of partial melting of the lead bullet on extracting it from the block, especially if the latter be of rather hard and resistant wood.
19.Thus it is known that birds do not keep direction by orientating themselves in the earth`s magnetic field, neither apparently, does memorizing the route play an essential part.
20.Neither the existence of nor the location of the local maximum in the flow rate curve can be predicted because the pumping phenomenon is too complex.
EMPHATIC CONSTRUCTIONS
1. SELECTION OF MEMBERS OF THE PROPOSAL IN THE DIRECT ORDER OF WORDS
Isolation of the predicate (emphatic "do").
To strengthen the statement expressed by the predicate in the tenses Present and Past Indefinite, the auxiliary verb to do is used, which in the corresponding tense, person and number is placed directly before the semantic verb used in the form of an infinitive without the particle to. Amplification is conveyed into Russian by the words "really", "all the same", "in fact":
Didn't say he would come and he did come.
He said he would come, and he did come.
Now I see that she does know the subject well.
Now I see that she really knows the subject well.
We do not know very much of this author. But we doknow that all the three poems were written by him.
We don't know much about this writer. But we still know that all three poems were written by him.
Note. The stress in the sentence falls in such cases on the verb to do. In difficult times of this kind, amplification is carried out by intonation - by shifting the stress to an auxiliary verb:
Has not written this work.
He also wrote this work (He really wrote this work).
An exercise
Translate as accurately as possible conveying the meaning of the amplifying "do".
1. Materialism does not deny the reality of mind. What materialism does deny is that a thing called "the mind" exists separate from the body.
2.
Certainly a great deal of new English poetry does meet with indifference because it seems private and incomprehensible.
3. While we have no language Academy for English, we do have something that partly serves the purpose, and that something is the dictionary.
4. The one thing, though, which must be set to her credit, is that she did initiate. She followed no one, but introduced what was actually a new type of novel. (1)
5. These old manuscripts are not so easy to read as our modern books, for the reason that there are no spaces between words. The later manuscripts however, do sometimes have spaces between the words just as we have.
6. He (Maugham) does, however, belong of right to that small and select company of contemporary writers whose best work, we may reasonably assume, will survive beyond their lifetime.
7. What possibilities and potentialities in politics, arts, sciences, vanished among the shell holes and barbed wire, we shall never know. But consequences of this war we do know, and we cannot ignore them.
8. It is perhaps necessary to remind the reader that there is a nucleus of fact hidden among all this fictitious embroidery. Kublai Khan did send a large fleet against Japan about the time stated, which met with a fate similar to that of Spanish Armade.
(1) We are talking about Charlotte Brontë (1816-1855), English writer, author of "Jen Eyre"
Twice no.
Negation notused before an adjective or adverb with negative prefixes un-, in- (il-, im-, ir-) dis-, has an amplifying meaning, and the whole combination usually corresponds to Russian "quite, quite, quite + adjective (adverb)"; eg:
not uncommon
- pretty common,
not infrequently
- often,
not impossible
- very possible.
In some cases, it is also possible to translate "not... Not" ("does not seem inevitable").
The combination "not + without + noun" has a similar meaning:
It is not without significance that. ... ...
It is also very important that. ... ...
The negation not can be combined with a negative adjective (participle or adverb) that does not have a negative prefix. It is translated in the same way as in the first case:
Humor is not missing in his work.
Humor is quite enough in his work (His work [written] is not without humor).
The combination "by no means + negative prefix + adverb" generally means "not at all... Not at all...", But in each case it is translated depending on the general style of the sentence:
It is by no means unreasonable to compare these data.
It makes sense to compare these data.
An exercise
Read the sentences. Translate the negative form of the adjective (adverb, participle) without negation. Find the most suitable translation method.
1. The total number of German words in English is not inconsiderable.
2. To find a poet who is also a literary critic is not unusual nowadays.
3. Not infrequently the primary meaning (of a word) dies away and the derivative meaning remains.
4. To group these artists into schools is a little pedantic. ... Yet it is not unreasonable to group together the painters who worked chiefly in Florence.
5. The changes of sound here are not irregular.
6. Not dissimilar effects are found in painting.
7. It is not without significance, also, that this work was utilized as a basis for the libretto of a popular opera.
8. These scholars then carried the New Learning (The Renaissance) to all parts of Europe, and the learned men of England were by no means unrepresented among them.
9. These two volumes were savagely, but not unfairly, criticized.
10.
None of the long poems are uninteresting, and very few are insignificant or unsuccessful.
11. Kitchener (2)
whose arrogance was not dissimilar to Curson "s (3)
was not prepared to tolerate a situation in which his proposals were criticized from the military point of view by the military member of Council.
12. The scenes and characters themselves are depicted most graphically, often even dramatically, and humor is not wanting where it is suitable.
13. If in historical times people were relatively safe from the assaults of enemies and from robbery, they feared dangers of other kinds which threatened them and their houses. Belief in magic and witchcraft is primeval and was not lacking even in the classical age of Greece.
(2)
Kitchener - Kitchener, Commander-in-Chief of British Forces in India (1904).
(3)
Curson - Curzon, Viceroy of India.
Allocation of subject, direct and indirect additions and circumstances
(emphatic construction "it is ... that, which, who, whom").
Combination "it is ... that" used to highlight one of the members of the sentence. The distinguished member of the sentence is placed between two parts of the structure, which in form is a complex sentence. The construction "it is ... that" is not translated into Russian, it only indicates the boundaries of the selected part of the sentence. In Russian, such sentences correspond to a simple sentence, in which amplifying words are added before the highlighted member "exactly", "just", "only" (more often when highlighting the circumstance of time), "only";in sentences with negation - "not at all", "not at all":
It is language that enables us to communicate with each other.
It is the language that enables us to communicate with each other. (Selecting the subject).
It was then that the London Bridge began to be rebuilt.
It was then that the reconstruction of the London Bridge began. (Highlighting the circumstances of the time).
It is Greek that she wants to study.
She wants to learn exactly Greek (language). (Emphasizing direct complement).
But it is not the Doctor who is the central figure of the play.
It is not at all (not at all) the doctor is the central character in the play. (Construction with a negative form of the verb).
It is when men begin to use tools for social production that they also begin to speak.
It is when people begin to use tools for social production that they also begin to talk. (Highlighting the clause clause).
Note. In the event that after the emphatic it is ... there is the word only or another amplifying word, then it is used instead of "exactly" when translating the entire sentence:
It was only with the help of a small lantern that we managed to find the box.
Only with the help of a flashlight did we manage to find the box.
An exercise
Find the clause to highlight. Translate the sentences, choosing the most appropriate amplifying words.
1. Of the countries of Western Europe, it is France that has the greatest number of human fossils.
2. It is no doubt to this quality that the great popularity of this collection is due.
3. It was only through treachery that the Turks had taken Antioch in 1085.
4. It was during the reign of the same Emperor that the Bulgars, who in later days played so important a part in Byzantine history, first established themselves in the Balkans.
5. Schools flourished in monasteries connected with York, Yarrow and Whitby, and it is to these that the literature about to be described owes its origin.
6. But, after all, it is not by means of any tricks or devices that, the remarkable effect of Milton "s verse is produced: that surely is due to the genius of the author whose mind and soul were full of music and harmony ...
7. All the extensions of human control over external nature have been due to improvement in tools. For it is mainly with the aid of tools that men can act upon and alter the material world around them.
8. In 1681 John Dryden wrote his four celebrated Satyres, which brought him into still greater prominence in society and at Court. It is largely on these that his fame as a poet now rests.
9. It was only with the beginning of that literary movement which we call Romanticism that men of letters, artists and scholars began to turn their attention seriously to the investigation of regional dialects.
10.
However it is with Leonardo the painter and sculptor that this book is concerned, and though from his paintings one can guess at a massive intellect one could hardly deduce the empirical scientist and inventor.
11. It was to Lyme Regis, the delightful little seaport and bathing beach, where we made a brief stop on our way to Exeter, that Charles II came after the battle of Worcester when he planned to escape from England.
Highlighting circumstances and contingent temporary subordinate clauses
(emphatic construction "it is not until... that").
Like the construction "it is... That" the combination "it is not until (till)... That" only shows the boundaries of the selected circumstance, but is not translated into Russian. The whole sentence is translated with the addition of amplifying words.
In the case where until is a preposition and refers to a circumstance, the amplifying words "only", "only" are added:
It was not untilmidnight that the vessel started.
The ship departed onlyat midnight.
In the case when the word until is a union and an entire subordinate clause is enclosed between the two parts of the construction, the words "only when" are added:
It was not untilhis book was published for the second time that it became more widely known.
Only then, when his book was published a second time, it became more widely known.
An exercise
Translate the sentences, having previously determined in which cases the word until is a preposition, and in which it is a conjunction.
1. Actually, however, it is not until the other person begins to speak that you can form a very definite idea of \u200b\u200bhis personality and his character.
2. It was not until 1846, when "Vanity Fair" (4)
began to appear, that Thackeray attained any eminence.
3. It was not until the end of the seventeenth century that France began to produce an art that, instead of echoing the faded amour of Italy, reflected the lively if equally artificial life of Versailles.
4. It was not till impressionism turned its attention to the nature of light and especially to the color of shadow that painters evolved a new way of seeing.
5. Although it is impossible to be quite certain of the changes that English words are now undergoing - for in general it is not until a change is an accomplished fact that it becomes perceptible - changes which have occured in the past throw a strong light upon changes which must be now taking place.
6. It was not till a century and a half had passed after the Claudian conquest that the Emperor Severus marked the final limit of the northern frontier by renovating (210 A. D.) the wall that Hadrian had erected "(123 A. D.). (5)
7. It was not until seven years had passed since the manuscripts had come into these scientists "hands that they published them with the introduction translated into English.
4)
"Vanity Fair" - "Vanity Fair", Thackeray's famous novel.
(5)
Claudian. Severus, Hadrian - Roman emperors Claudius, North, Hadrian. Emperor Hadrian, during the period of the conquest of the island of Britain, built a wall of 80 miles between Scotland and England.
The emphatic combination "not... Till (until)".
The combination of not, which is part of the predicate, and the word till (until), facing the circumstance of time, is translated by the predicate in the affirmative form and the words "only", "only" before the circumstance:
The work was notfinished till8 o "clock.
The work was finished only in8 ocloc'k.
The combination "not + until (till) + after" is translated - "only after":
His work was notpublished until after the October Revolution.
His work has been published only after October revolution.
An exercise.
Translate.
1. The first part of this work did not come out until 1940.
2.
Cotton was not introduced (to Japan) from China until later and wool was unknown.
3. "Utopia" 6 was written in Latin about 1516, and it was not translated till 1551, some years after More "s death.
4. Tennyson "s last work," Death of Oenone ", was not published until after his death on October 6th 1892.
5. In England ancient fields indicate that no plow was used till late in the local bronze age, about 800 BC, and then at first only in the south.
6. Silver and lead were known in Hither Asia before 3000 B.C., but neither was used in Britain till after 500, though Britain is well supplied with lead ores.
2. SELECTION OF MEMBERS OF THE PROPOSAL IN THE REVERSE ORDER OF WORDS
Highlighting members of the sentence with the help of amplifying, restrictive and negative words.
When strengthening and emphasizing the meaning of a secondary member of a sentence (usually circumstances), the highlighted member of the sentence, together with the amplifying word preceding it, is brought forward and placed before the subject, which entails an inversion of the predicate:
They will realize the importance of his work only in the course of time.
"Utopia" - "Utopia" - the work of Thomas More (1480-1535).
Here is the usual word order: subject, predicate, circumstance. But:
Only in the course of time will they realize the importance of his work.
Only with time will they understand the importance of his work.
Here inversion: amplifying word, circumstance, 1st part of the predicate, subject, 2nd part of the predicate, addition.
The main amplifying and restrictive wordsthat can cause predicate inversion:
7) no sooner. ... ... than and hardly. ... ... when can be used while preserving direct word order.
Negative words that can cause the inversion of the predicate:
In the following examples, the predicate consists of two or three parts, with the first part of the predicate before the subject, and the second after it.
Only in two cases can we finda similar construction.
Only in two cases do we find a similar construction.
Only from this point of view isit possible to approach the problem.
Only from this point of view is it possible to approach this problem.
Only tomorrow will they receiveour telegram.
Only tomorrow will they receive our telegram.
In the event that the predicate is expressed by one semantic verb (that is, if this verb is in Present or Past Indefinite), and highlighting the circumstance requires inversion of the predicate, then the auxiliary verb to do is put in place of the first part of the predicate (before the subject) in the appropriate tense , face and number; Wed, for example:
We find a slight difference between the two forms only in one case.
We find little difference between both forms in only one case.
But:
Only in one case do we find a slight difference between the two forms.
The auxiliary "do" used for predicate inversion is not translated into Russian:
Only in one paper didwe find confirmation of our theory.
Only in one work did we find confirmation of our theory.
Note. If in this way a whole subordinate clause is allocated, then the inversion is observed in the main clause:
Only after the proofs had been corrected did he leave the publishing-house.
Only after the proofreading was corrected did he leave the publishing house.
Translation of sentences with emphatic "so" and "nor".
In addition to inversion, a complete or partial replacement of the predicate with a verb substitute can occur here. So in such cases is translated "also, also", nor - "and also... not". Auxiliary verbs to do, to be, etc.
Is not very busy now, and so are both his friends.
He's very busy right now, and so are both of his friends.
He knows three foreign languages, and so does his sister.
He knows three foreign languages, and so does his sister.
An exercise
Translate the sentences, having previously found both parts of the predicate, displaced due to inversion.
1. In architectural unity Chekhov surpasses all Russian writers of the Realistic age. Only in Pushkin and Lermontov do we find an equal or superior gift of design.
2. Not only has this custom many parallels in modern times, but it can be demonstrated that it has survived in Greece since antiquity.
3. In no department of literature was so great an advance made during this period as in prose.
4. News about Japan reached Russia relatively late. Not until the seventeenth century do we find mention of Japan in Russian sources.
5. Not only did they edit and print textbooks on Confucianism, but they compiled books for popular education.
6. Only in 1733 did justice triumph when a new investigation was launched and both villains were hanged.
7. Nor can the author resist the temptation of bestowing on the reader tedious displays of his erudition, or of introducing foreign or obsolete words.
8. Prosper Merimee may at first sight seem to be completely outside the Romantic movement, for neither as a man AOL as a writer does he share any of its obvious and flamboyant characteristics.
9. Naturally, Hamlet is bitter against such a trimmer as Polonius. Nor could there, apart from reasons for direct resentment, be any community of feeling between the types so antagonistic.
10. The "forts" were not works of defense either strategic or social. Nor were they sacrificed places: they were something special. They were economic units, enclosed villages.
11. Hardly had the Turks taken possession of Tarsus (a city), when three thousand Normans arrived before the city, having come from the main army to reinforce Tancred.
12.
The king of Dahomei himself was subject to (8)
the prohibition of beholding the sea, and so were the kings of Loango and Great Ardra in Guinea.
13. Only after 1500 B.C. do bronze sickles begin to figure in Egyptian pictures or European hords.
14. In no part of the world, perhaps, are the inhabitants better fishermen.
15. Only occasionally do human bones found in these tumuli indicate the action of fire.
16. The dust had hardly settled over the battlefields of the world, when newspapers began to carry reports of a sensational new discovery in the field of biblical (9)
archeology.
17. No sooner, however, had his mother discovered that her son had found through imaginative play a method of stimulating his mind, than she put an end to the fairy tales.
18. The negotiations had barely been resumed, when sudden disaster overtook both sides. In the forenoon of December 23, an earthquake shook the area and a great tidal wave deluged the coast.
19. Agricultural tasks succeed each other in due order because they are bound up with the seasons, and so also do the rites and ceremonies which are connected with the tasks of sowing, reaping, threshing, gardening, and fruit gathering.
20. The two words are not enough alike in sound to cause their confusion, nor do their written symbols look alike enough.
21. Not only have her inland position and her relation to the Asiatic mainland influenced Japan greatly, but the characteristics of the land itself have been important.
22. Other examples of sound language not based on speech are the Army bugle calls, each one of which has a different meaning which the soldiers must learn. Nor should we forget our conventional way of indicating approval by clapping the hands and disapproval by hissing.
(8)
to be subject to - to be subject; here: to be prohibited (taboo).
(9)
This refers to the finds of the Qumran manuscripts (2nd century BC - 1st century AD), the so-called finds at the Dead Sea
Removing the participle from the predicate to the first place in the sentence.
In the narrative style of speech, in the case of special emphasis on the circumstances of the action, the participle (or adjective) that is part of the predicate is placed in the first place in the sentence. Translation in such cases should begin with a circumstance (or addition) that comes after the participle, then the predicate is translated and, finally, the subject is compared:
Conventional design |
Emphatic design |
|
|
A small ring was lying inside the box. |
Lying inside the box was a small ring. |
A small ring was inside the box. |
Inside the box was a small ring. |
As part of the predicate, participle in time |
|
Some other types of changes are also connected with this phenomenon. |
Connected with this phenomenon are also some other types of changes. |
Several other types of changes are also associated with this phenomenon. |
Also associated with this phenomenon |
Have exercise
Translate the sentences after finding both parts of the predicate.
1. Standing on the threshold and smiling was Ann, safe and sound.
2. Connected with these ballads is still a larger group of miscellaneous romances of adventure.
3. Left behind are two small islands, treeless bits of volcanic soil.
4. Developing alongside these schools was a third group, the monastic, which owed less to the spirit of the Renaissance, and more to the old art of the East.
5. An equally interesting hunting scene is that painted in the neighbouring cave. The two stags are pictured here in full flight. Running at the top speed after the two animals is their pursuer - a hunter armed with his bow.
6.
Less general than these principles, but yet closely connected with universal modes of thought, are the various functions of words, which we call the parts of speech.
7. This is the most important problem since linked with it is the question of the relations between language and thought.
8. Allied to these classes is a group of words which have been shortened owing to misapprehension, whereas the foregoing have been shortened for the sake of brevity.
Participles (and adjectives) in the predicate, placed in the first place, and participles in the function of definition, circumstance and introductory term of the sentence
Translate, having previously defined the function of the participle.
1. Cut in the rock on the face of a great cliff in the eastern part of Persia, there was an inscription in three languages.
2. Look closely at the bare branches of a tree, on which not the palest gleam of green can be discerned. Yet, spaced along each branch are the leaf buds, safely preserved under the insulating layers.
3. Lying in the open Atlantic between Brazil and Africa, St. Paul "s Rocks are an obstruction thrust up from the floor of the ocean into the midst of the Equatorial Current.
4. These animals could have been portrayed only when they were still living during the Glacial Epoch. Confirming this is the fact that representations of these animals have been found embedded in the hearth ashes and detritus associated with skeletal remains of animals of the same species.
5. Viewed in the right way, it is evident that the local "Stone Age" lasted in Central Russia up to the first millenium V.S.
6. Intermingled with these shells are found the bones of various animals.
7. In the midst of the most extraordinary abundance, here are men, women and children dying of starvation; and running alongside a splendid chariot are poor, forlorn, almost naked wretches.
8. Viewed from the standpoint of palaeonthology all this evidence is untenable.
9. Close to the famous Cave is the railway-station of Shell-Mound so called for an uncommonly large deposits of shells.
10. Simultaneous with this outburst of rhetoric was the school of Venetian painters, artists who delighted the rich travelers by producing views of Venetian life.
11. Meanwhile, nourished on the soil of Umbria to the south, another group of painters was maturing.
3. EMPHATIC OPENING OFFERS
Consensus sentences with the predicate's nominal part brought forward. In a concessive sentence of this type, in the first place is the nominal part of the predicate, expressed by an adjective, participle or adverb, followed by the conjunction as or though. The whole combination is translated "no matter how... + The nominal part of the predicate", "what... No", "though...":
Important as this work is, it does not cover the problem on the whole.
As important as this work is, it does not cover the whole problem.
Harmful though it is for his health, he is not able to give up smoking.
Although it is bad for his health, he cannot quit smoking.
Note. The verb may (might), which is sometimes part of the predicate of concessive sentences, is usually not translated:
Strange though it may seem, I did not think about it.
As strange as it may seem (it may seem), I did not think about it.
An exercise
1. Important as fishing was for the Eastern Islanders, 10 it was never as vital to them as to the Tahitians. (10)
2.
The following translations, inadequate as they are, may help to give some idea of \u200b\u200bthe character of this poetry.
3. Strangely as it seems to us, the play is devoid of real action, for the above events are not shown on the stage.
4. But, great as have been the triumphs of these new methods, it should not be forgotten that everything is not said when the facts of a language are interpreted in the terms of linguistic history.
5. Inexperienced though they were in navigation, the two men safely reached that island in a small boat.
6. Excellent though it be from a literary standpoint, this book is yet a paradox; for it gives a most unexciting (but far from boring) account of a most exciting experience.
7. Little as he (Galsworthy) indulged in dialect, he occasionally admitted a certain satisfaction in this fact, and lived much of his working life in this country, and made it the scene of some narratives.
(10) Inhabitants of Easter and Tahiti islands
Offering sentences starting with conjunctions.
If there is a union at the beginning of the concession howeverfollowed by the nominal part of the predicate, expressed adjective, participle or adverb, then the translation of such sentences should begin with the words "whatever....", "whatever...", "though..."
However complicated the problem is, we are to solve it.
No matter how difficult this task is, we have to solve it.
Offers can also start with the following unions:
however - howsoever; though;
whoever - whoever; anyone who ...;
whatever - whatever; everything, that...;
Whichever; anyone who ...;
wherever - wherever; wherever ...;
wherever; wherever ...;
whenever - whenever; whenever...
An exercise
Translate the following concessional sentences.
1. Science teaches us inseparability of matter and motion. However static some things may seem to be, there is in them continual motion.
2. Whatever value may be attached to the work as history - it is probably biassed as regards the character of Richard - it is the work of a master of English prose.
3.According to idealism, however closely the mind may be connected with the body, it is nevertheless distinct and separable from the body.
4. Whatever the reason, there are few panels of early date in existence today which show really first-class work.
5. Most of this volume is taken up with dissertations on the principles of government, which, however necessary for a comprehension of the motives and ideas of Japanese statesmen of the old regime, are not very interesting to the European reader.
6. Whoever the authors may have been, their primary object was the promotion of piety.
7. This work, however valuable it may be for research into mythology, the manners, the language, and the legends of early Japan, is a very poor production, whether we consider it as a literature or as a record of facts.
Repetition of emphatic constructions
Translate.
1. In reciting a passage of a light and humorous character it is by no means unusual for a man with an average voice to have a range of intonation of over two octaves.
2. It is this very silence of the poet that makes the verse all the more eloquent.
3.
Only in this last work does the author show what he might have done, had he used his genius rightly.
4. These plays were not high either in their humor or in literary worth, but they did represent a distinct advance towards regular drama.
5. It was not the classics themselves as much as the works of Italy and France above mentioned, which had so important an influence on the poets to be presently considered, particularly on Chaucer.
6. Fragmentary though our knowledge is of the total achievement of the Greek sculptors, we need have no doubt that from what does remain we can estimate quite accurately the full strength and weakness of Hellenistic sculpture at any point between its origins and its final decay.
7. The basis of man's social activity is labor. It is in and through labor that man first of all enlarges his perceptions and first of all begins to use his brain to think - to form ideas and to communicate them, to develop thought and language.
8. In no wise (11)
inferior in importance to the art stations of Southern France are those of Northern. Here, near Santillana del Mar is the cave of Altamira, which has been not unaptly termed "The Chapel of Palaeolithic Art".
9. However much the Emperor and the Crusader princes might quarrel over their ultimate rights and the distribution of conquests to come, there could be no dissension about the opening stages of the campaign against the infidel.
10. These novels are by no means forgotten at the present day, and might not improbably have a return of their popularity, which was at one time great.
11. It is as our perceptions increase with increased activity and social contacts that our ideas develop.
12. It is not merely in particular places that we find a beautiful effect; it is rather the continuous charm of his poetry, the sense of harmony that runs throughout that makes us feel his greatness.
13. Hunting by means of surprise in the case of sleeping or exhausted animals would also be practiced - a means in common use with the Bushmen, who have brought it to the height of perfection. Neither is it impossible that the use of lasso, throwing-stick and snare was known.
14. It also not infrequently happened that the people of this period chose the suitable pieces of broken clay vessels and ground them into knives.
15. However hard they may work and however much they may scrape and save, the non-possessors will remain poor, while the possessors grow rich on the fruits of their labor.
16. It was during the time when Latin was still spoken, however, that the first modifications had to be made in the alphabet.
17. And indeed, from these first beginnings, it has always been through their advancing Mastery over nature that succeeding generations of men have come to know more and more of the properties of natural objects: each stage of advance has meant enlarged perceptions, new discoveries , wider horizons.
(11) in no wise - no way.
Reading
Child psychologists believe that reading is one of the best habits that should be encouraged in children. Ninety percent of the things we learn during our lifetime come through books; therefore if we can "t read, we can" t learn.
Books appeared long ago. At first they were written by hand, but after printing was invented, it became easier to publish books. There are two large groups of books: fiction and non-fiction books. Fiction books are most popular with readers and include short stories and novels of different genres and poetry. Non-fiction books are dictionaries, reference books, historical books, biographies, encyclopaedias and others.
In my childhood, my mother read different books to me and that helped me to love reading. When I learned to read, I was really happy because I could read books which I wanted and liked. At first, they were fairy tales, adventure stories and comics. Later, I was fond of detective stories and thrillers. Now I read historical novels and I realize that I do not know many things from history and it is so wonderful that I can learn them now and understand facts that I could not understand in my childhood. During my studies I also use non-fiction books like dictionaries and encyclopaedias to find necessary information.
Today television and the Internet have almost replaced books because these resources provide any information one wants and some people think that in the modern world we do not need books at all. I think, however, that books will never disappear, because reading gives us pleasure.
Modern technologies also made it possible for us to use electronic readers instead of paper copies of books. On the one hand, such readers are very convenient as you do not have to carry a thick book in your bag: you just take the reader and upload text files into it, so instead of several books you just
carry one light electronic device! In addition, you may also keep pictures and even music files on it. Lastly, it is more environmentally friendly to use an electronic reader - cutting down trees is not needed for their development unlike the process of producing paper copies.
However, everything has its disadvantages. To begin with, such readers are rather expensive and not everyone can afford them. One point against it is that free electronic texts to download are hard to find. Finally, paper books are more pleasant to hold in hands: touch their pages, turn them over, feel their smell. I have an electronic reader and it is convenient, but I still read paper copies of books too.
To sum up, it is impossible to live without reading and even if paper books may disappear in the future, people will never stop reading.
PLAN-ANSWER. READING
1. Introduction (the importance of reading, if we can "t read, we can" t learn, etc.).
2. Tell briefly about the history of typography and two groups of books (appeared long ago, were written by hand, printing was invented, two large groups, fiction: short stories and novels of different genres and poetry; non-fiction: dictionaries, reference books, historical books, biographies, encyclopaedias).
3. Tell about what you read as a child, what books you prefer to read now (In my childhood, fairy tales / adventure stories, etc .; Now I read ...; During my studies I also use ...).
4. Talk about reading and books in the modern world and modern technologies (television and the Internet, do not need books at all, modern technologies, electronic readers: advantages and disadvantages, etc.).
5. Conclusion (That sum up, it is impossible to live without reading and even if paper books may disappear in the future, people will never stop reading.).
QUESTIONS
1. Do you read much?
2. What sort of books do you read?
3. Do you enjoy reading?
4. Should children be encouraged to read?
5. What are the advantages of reading? Are there any disadvantages? What are they?
6. Is it good to get the reading habit?
7. Do you read in English or in your own language?
8. Does reading help to learn a language?
9. When do you usually read?
10. Do you read newspapers?
11. Do you read magazines or journals?
12. What books do you usually use to get ready for your classes?
13. Do you think people should read more?
14. What will happen if we don "t read?
15. When should we start reading?
16. Do you think that people don "t read so much because they are busy watching television or surfing the Internet?
17. What would you do to encourage people to read? Is it difficult to encourage yourself to read? Why (not)?
18. What was your favorite book in your childhood? What is your favorite book now?
19. What is your favorite genre of books?
20. Do you read electronic books or prefer paper copies of books? Why?
21. What are the advantages and disadvantages of electronic readers?
22. Do you think that books may disappear in the future? Why (not)?
23. Where do you usually buy books?
24. Do you borrow books from a library or do you buy them?
25. Do you think that libraries may disappear in the future? Why (not)?
USEFUL WORDS AND PHRASES
Fiction Fiction
action and adventure action and adventure
children "s books for children
contemporary contemporary prose
crime detective
fantasy fantasy
graphic novels / comics comics
historical fiction historical novel
horror horror
humor humorous prose
mystery detective novel
romance romance novel
science fiction science fiction
short story collection. storybook
thrillers thrillers
young adult literature for teenagers
Non-Fiction Popular non-fiction
almanac almanac
art & photography art books
biography & memoirs biography / memoirs
blueprint blueprint
booklet booklet, brochure
brochure brochure
business & finance business and finance
cookbook cookbook
dictionary dictionary
encyclopaedia encyclopedia
gardening gardening
gift books gift editions
guide guide, travel guide
handbook reference manual
history history books
"how-to" instruction
journalism journalism
manual user manual
medical health & fitness medicine and fitness
nature & ecology nature and ecology
periodical periodicals
pets about pets
picture book picture dictionary
psychology psychology
reference reference
self-help books "help yourself"
sports sports
textbook tutorial
travel travel books