The Arabs call their homeland Arabia - Jazirat al-Arab, that is, "The Island of the Arabs."
Indeed, from the west the Arabian Peninsula is washed by the waters of the Red Sea, from the south - by the Gulf of Aden, from the east - by the Oman and Persian Gulfs. To the north lies the rugged Syrian Desert. Naturally, with such a geographical position, the ancient Arabs felt isolated, that is, "living on an island."Speaking about the origin of the Arabs, they usually single out the historical and ethnographic areas that have their own characteristics. The allocation of these areas is based on the specifics of socio-economic, cultural and ethnic development. The cradle of the Arab world is considered to be the Arabian historical and ethnographic region, the boundaries of which do not at all coincide with the modern states of the Arabian Peninsula. This includes, for example, the eastern regions of Syria and Jordan. The second historical and ethnographic zone (or region) includes the rest of Syria, Jordan, as well as Lebanon and Palestine. Iraq is considered a separate historical and ethnographic zone. Egypt, North Sudan and Libya are united in one zone. And finally, the Maghreb-Mauritanian zone, which includes the Maghreb countries - Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, as well as Mauritania and Western Sahara. This division is by no means universally recognized, for border areas, as a rule, have features that are characteristic of both neighboring zones.
Economic activity
The agricultural culture of Arabia developed quite early, although only some parts of the peninsula were suitable for land use. These are primarily those territories on which the state of Yemen is now located, as well as some parts of the coast and oases. Petersburg orientalist O. Bolshakov believes that "in terms of the intensity of agriculture, Yemen can be put on a par with such ancient civilizations as Mesopotamia and Egypt." The physical and geographical conditions of Arabia predetermined the division of the population into two groups - sedentary farmers and nomadic pastoralists. There was no clear division of the inhabitants of Arabia into sedentary and nomads, because there were various types of mixed economy, relations between which were maintained not only through commodity exchange, but also through family ties.
In the last quarter of the 2nd millennium BC. the herders of the Syrian desert had a domesticated dromedary camel (dromedar). The number of camels was still small, but this already allowed some of the tribes to move on to a truly nomadic life. This circumstance forced herders to lead a more mobile lifestyle and make many kilometers of crossings to remote areas, for example, from Syria to Mesopotamia, directly through the desert.
The first state formations
Several states arose on the territory of modern Yemen, which in the IV century A.D. were united by one of them - the Himyarite kingdom. For the South Arabian society of antiquity, the same features are characteristic that are inherent in other societies of the Ancient East: a slave-owning system arose here, on which the wealth of the ruling class was based. The state carried out the construction, repair of large irrigation systems, without which it was impossible to develop agriculture. The population of the cities was mainly represented by artisans who skillfully manufactured high-quality products, including agricultural implements, weapons, household utensils, leather goods, fabrics, and ornaments from sea shells. In Yemen, gold was mined, and aromatic resins, including incense and myrrh, were collected. Later, the interest of Christians in this product constantly stimulated transit trade, thanks to which the exchange of goods between the Arabian Arabs and the population of the Christian regions of the Middle East expanded.
With the conquest of the Himyarite kingdom at the end of the 6th century by Sassanian Iran, horses appeared in Arabia. It was during this period that the state fell into decay, which affected primarily the urban population.
As for the nomads, such collisions hurt them to a lesser extent. The life of the nomads was determined by the tribal structure, where there were dominant and subordinate tribes. Within the tribe, relations were regulated depending on the degree of kinship. The material existence of the tribe depended exclusively on the harvest in the oases, where there were cultivated land and wells, as well as on the offspring of herds. The main factor influencing the patriarchal life of the nomads, in addition to the attacks of unfriendly tribes, were natural disasters - drought, epidemics and earthquakes, which are mentioned in Arab legends.
The nomads of central and northern Arabia have long been engaged in raising sheep, cattle and camels. It is characteristic that the nomadic world of Arabia was surrounded by economically more developed regions, so there is no need to talk about the cultural isolation of Arabia. In particular, this is evidenced by the excavation data. For example, when constructing dams and reservoirs, the inhabitants of southern Arabia used a cement slurry that was invented in Syria around 1200 BC. The presence of ties that existed between the inhabitants of the Mediterranean coast and southern Arabia as early as the 10th century BC confirms the story of the trip of the ruler of Saba ("Queen of Sheba") to King Solomon.
Semitic advance from Arabia
Around the 3rd millennium BC. Arabian Semites began to settle in Mesopotamia and Syria. Already from the middle of the 1st millennium BC. began intensive movement of Arabs outside the "Jazirat al-Arab". However, those Arabian tribes that appeared in Mesopotamia in the III-II millennia BC were soon assimilated by the Akkadians who lived there. Later, in the XIII century BC, a new advance of the Semitic tribes, who spoke Aramaic dialects, began. Already in the VII-VI centuries BC. Aramaic becomes the spoken language of Syria, displacing Akkadian.
ancient arabians
By the beginning of the new era, significant masses of Arabs had moved to Mesopotamia, settled in southern Palestine and the Sinai Peninsula. Some tribes even managed to create state formations. Thus, the Nabateans founded their kingdom on the border of Arabia and Palestine, which lasted until the II century AD. Along the lower reaches of the Euphrates, the Lakhmid state arose, but its rulers were forced to recognize their vassal dependence on the Persian Sassanids. The Arabs, who settled in Syria, Trans-Jordan and southern Palestine, united in the 6th century under the rule of representatives of the Ghassanid tribe. They also had to recognize themselves as vassals of a stronger Byzantium. It is characteristic that both the Lakhmid state (in 602) and the Ghassanid state (in 582) were destroyed by their own suzerains, who feared the strengthening and growing independence of their vassals. Nevertheless, the presence of Arab tribes in the Syrian-Palestinian region was a factor that subsequently contributed to softening a new, more massive Arab invasion. Then they began to penetrate into Egypt. Thus, the city of Koptos in Upper Egypt, even before the Muslim conquest, was half-populated by Arabs.
Naturally, the newcomers quickly adopted local customs. The caravan trade allowed them to maintain ties with kindred tribes and clans within the Arabian Peninsula, which gradually contributed to the convergence of urban and nomadic cultures.
Preconditions for the unification of Arabs
In the tribes living on the borders of Palestine, Syria and Mesopotamia, the process of decomposition of primitive communal relations developed faster than among the population of the interior of Arabia. In the 5th-7th centuries, the underdevelopment of the internal organization of the tribes was observed, which, in combination with the remnants of the maternal account and polyandry, indicated that, due to the specifics of the nomadic economy, the decomposition of the tribal system in Central and North Arabia developed more slowly than in the neighboring regions of Western Asia.
Periodically, related tribes united into unions. Sometimes tribes were split up or absorbed by powerful tribes. Over time, it became apparent that large formations are more viable. It was in tribal unions or confederations of tribes that the prerequisites for the emergence of a class society began to take shape. The process of its formation was accompanied by the creation of primitive state formations. Even in the II-VI centuries, large tribal unions began to form (Mazhij, Kinda, Maad, etc.), but none of them could become the core of a single all-Arab state. A prerequisite for the political unification of Arabia was the desire of the tribal elite to secure the right to land, livestock and income from the caravan trade. An additional factor was the need to combine efforts to resist external expansion. As we have already indicated, at the turn of the 6th-7th centuries, the Persians captured Yemen and liquidated the Lakhmid state, which was in vassal dependence. As a result, in the south and north, Arabia was threatened with being absorbed by the Persian power. Naturally, the situation had a negative impact on Arabian trade. The merchants of a number of Arabian cities suffered significant material damage. The only way out of this situation could be the unification of related tribes.
The center of Arab unification was the Hejaz region, located in the west of the Arabian Peninsula. This area has long been famous for its relatively developed agriculture, crafts, but most importantly - trade. The local cities - Mecca, Yasrib (later Medina), Taif - had strong contacts with the neighboring tribes of nomads who visited them, exchanging their goods for the products of urban artisans.
However, the unification of the Arabian tribes was hampered by the religious situation. The ancient Arabs were pagans. Each tribe respected its patron god, although some of them can be considered common Arab - Allah, al-Uzza, al-Lat. Even in the first centuries in Arabia, it was known about Judaism and Christianity. Moreover, in Yemen, these two religions have practically supplanted pagan cults. On the eve of the Persian conquest, the Yemeni-Jews fought against the Yemeni-Christians, while the Jews focused on Sassanian Persia (which later facilitated the conquest of the Himyarite kingdom by the Persians), and the Christians - on Byzantium. In these conditions, a form of Arabian monotheism arose, which (especially at an early stage) to a large extent, but in a peculiar way, reflected some of the postulates of Judaism and Christianity. Its adherents - the Hanifs - became the bearers of the idea of \u200b\u200ba single god. In turn, this form of monotheism paved the way for the rise of Islam.
The religious beliefs of the Arabs of the pre-Islamic period are a conglomerate of various beliefs, among which there were female and male deities; the veneration of stones, springs, trees, various spirits, jinn and shaitans, who were intermediaries between people and gods, was also widespread. Naturally, the absence of clear dogmatic ideas opened up wide opportunities for penetration into this amorphous worldview of the ideas of more developed religions, and contributed to religious and philosophical reflections.
By that time, writing became more and more widespread, which later played a huge role in the formation of medieval Arab culture, and at the stage of the emergence of Islam contributed to the accumulation and transmission of information. The need for this was colossal, as evidenced by the practice of oral memorization and reproduction of ancient genealogies, historical chronicles, and poetic narratives, widespread among the Arabs.
As noted by the St. Petersburg scientist A. Khalidov, "most likely, the language was formed as a result of a long development based on the selection of heterogeneous forms and their artistic understanding." In the end, it was the use of the same language of poetry that became one of the most important factors contributing to the formation of the Arab community. Naturally, the process of mastering the Arabic language did not occur simultaneously. This process took place most rapidly in those areas where the inhabitants spoke the related languages \u200b\u200bof the Semitic group. In other regions, this process took several centuries, but a number of peoples, having found themselves under the rule of the Arab Caliphate, managed to maintain their linguistic independence.
Arab caliphs
Abu Bakr and Omar
Omar ibn Khattab
Caliph Ali
Harun ar Rashid
Abd ar Rahman I
Arab Caliphate
The Arab Caliphate is a theocratic state headed by a Caliph. The core of the Caliphate arose on the Arabian Peninsula after the emergence of Islam at the beginning of the 7th century. It was formed as a result of military campaigns in the middle of the 7th - early 9th centuries. and the conquest (with the subsequent Islamization) of the peoples of the countries of the Near and Middle East, North Africa and South-Western Europe.
Abbasids, second great dynasty of Arab caliphs
Conquest of the Caliphate
Trade in the Caliphate
Arab dirhams
In room 6 c. Arabia lost a number of territories - trade was disrupted.
Unification became necessary.
The unification of the Arabs was helped by the new religion of Islam.
Its founder, Mohammed, was born around 570 in a poor family. He married his former mistress and became a merchant.
Islam
The science
Arab army
Applied arts
Bedouin
Bedouin tribes: At the head - the leader The custom of blood feud Military clashes over pastures At the end of the VI century. - Arab trade was disrupted.
Arabs' conquests - VII - AD VIII century A huge Arab state was formed - the Arab Caliphate, the capital of Damascus.
The heyday of the Baghdad Caliphate - the years of the reign of Harun ar-Rashid (768-809).
In 732, as the chroniclers testified, the 400,000-strong Arab army crossed the Pyrenees and invaded Gaul. Later studies lead to the conclusion that the Arabs could have had from 30 to 50 thousand soldiers.
Not without the help of the Aquitaine and Burgundian nobility, who opposed the process of centralization in the kingdom of the Franks, the Arab army of Abd-el-Rahman moved through Western Gaul, reached the center of Aquitaine, occupied Poitiers and headed for Tours. Here, on the old Roman road, at the crossing of the Vienne River, the Arabs were met by a 30,000-strong army of Franks, led by the Carolingian majord Pepin Charles, who was the de facto ruler of the Frankish state since 715.
Even at the beginning of his reign, the Frankish state consisted of three long-isolated parts: Neustria, Austrasia and Burgundy. Royal power was purely nominal. The enemies of the Franks were not slow to take advantage of this. The Saxons invaded the Rhine regions, the Avars invaded Bavaria, and the Arab conquerors moved through the Pyrenees to the Laura River.
Karl had to pave his way to power with weapons in hand. After the death of his father in 714, he and his stepmother Plectruda were thrown into prison, from where he was able to escape the following year. By that time he was already a well-known military leader of the Franks of Austrasia, where he was popular among free peasants and middle landowners. They became his main support in the internecine struggle for power in the Frankish state.
Having established himself in Australasia, Karl Pepin began to strengthen the position in the lands of the Franks by force of arms and diplomacy. After a fierce confrontation with his opponents in 715, he became the major of the Frankish state and ruled it on behalf of the young king Theodoric IV. Having established himself at the royal throne, Charles began a series of military campaigns outside Australasia.
Charles, having gained the upper hand in the battles over the feudal lords who were trying to challenge his supreme power, in 719 won a brilliant victory over the Neustrians, led by one of his opponents, Major Ragenfried, whose ally was the ruler of Aquitaine, Count Ed. At the battle of Sausson, the Frankish ruler put the enemy army to flight. By handing over Ragenfried, Count Ed managed to conclude a temporary peace with Charles. The Franks soon occupied the cities of Paris and Orleans.
Then Karl remembered about his sworn enemy - his stepmother Plectrude, who had her own large army. Having started a war with her, Charles forced his stepmother to surrender to him the rich and well-fortified city of Cologne on the banks of the Rhine.
In 725 and 728, Major Karl Pepin made two large military campaigns against the Bavarians and eventually subdued them. Then came the campaigns to Alemannia and Aquitaine, to Thuringia and Frisia ...
Before the battle of Poitiers, the infantry, consisting of free peasants, remained the basis of the combat power of the Frankish army. At that time, all men in the kingdom capable of carrying weapons were liable for military service.
Organizationally, the army of the Franks was divided into hundreds, or, in other words, into such a number of peasant households that could put a hundred foot soldiers into the militia in wartime. Peasant communities themselves regulated military conscription. Each Frankish warrior was armed and equipped at his own expense. The quality of the weapon was checked at reviews held by the king or, on his behalf, the military leaders-counts. If a warrior's weapon was in an unsatisfactory condition, then he was punished. There is a known case when the king killed a warrior during one of these reviews for the poor maintenance of personal weapons.
The Franks' national weapon was the Francisca, an ax with one or two blades, to which a rope was tied. The Franks deftly threw axes at the enemy at close range. For close hand-to-hand combat, they used swords. In addition to the Francis and swords, the Franks also armed themselves with short spears - Angons with teeth on a long and sharp tip. The Angon teeth had the opposite direction and therefore it was very difficult to remove it from the wound. In battle, the warrior first threw the angon, which pierced the enemy's shield, and then stepped on the spear shaft and thereby pulled back the shield and struck the enemy with a heavy sword. Many warriors had bows and arrows, which were sometimes soaked in poison.
The only defensive weaponry of the Frankish warrior in the time of Karl Pepin was a round or oval shield. Only wealthy warriors had helmets and chain mail, since metal products cost a lot of money. Part of the armament of the Frankish army was war booty.
In European history, the Frankish commander Karl Pepin became famous primarily for successful wars against the Arab conquerors, for which he received the nickname "Martell", which means "hammer".
In 720 the Arabs crossed the Pyrenees and invaded what is now France. The Arab army took the well-fortified Narbonne by attack and laid siege to the large city of Toulouse. Count Ed was defeated, and he had to seek refuge in Austrasia with the remnants of his army.
Very soon, the Arab cavalry appeared in the fields of Septimania and Burgundy and even reached the left bank of the Rhone River, entering the lands of the Franks. Thus, in the fields of Western Europe, for the first time, a major clash between the Muslim and Christian worlds ripened. Arab generals, crossing the Pyrenees, had great plans of conquest in Europe.
We must pay tribute to Karl - he immediately understood the full danger of an Arab invasion. After all, the Arabs-Moors by that time managed to conquer almost all Spanish regions. Their troops were constantly replenished with new forces coming through the Strait of Gibraltar from the Maghreb - North Africa, from the territory of modern Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. Arab generals were famous for their martial arts, and their warriors were excellent riders and archers. The Arab army was partially manned by North African nomad Berbers, for which the Arabs were called Moors in Spain.
Karl Pepin, interrupting the military campaign in the upper Danube, in 732 gathered a large militia of the Austrasians, Neustrians and the Rhine tribes. By that time, the Arabs had already plundered the city of Bordeaux, captured the fortified city of Poitiers and moved towards Tours.
The Frankish commander decisively moved to meet the Arab army, trying to forestall its appearance before the fortress walls of Tour. He already knew that the Arabs were commanded by the experienced Abd al-Rahman and that his army was significantly superior to the Franks' militia, which, according to the same European chroniclers, numbered only 30 thousand soldiers.
At the point where the old Roman road crossed the Vienne River, across which a bridge was built, the Franks and their allies blocked the Arab army's path to Tours. Nearby was the city of Poitiers, after which the battle was named, which took place on October 4, 732 and lasted several days: according to Arab chronicles - two, according to Christian - seven days.
Knowing that light cavalry and many archers predominate in the enemy's army, Major Karl Pepin decided to give the Arabs, who adhered to active offensive tactics in the fields of Europe, a defensive battle. Moreover, the hilly terrain impeded the action of large masses of cavalry. The Frankish army was built for the battle between the Maple and Vienne rivers, which well covered its flanks with their banks. The basis of the battle formation was the infantry, built in a dense phalanx. On the flanks were the cavalry, heavily armed in a knightly manner. The right flank was commanded by Count Ed.
Usually the Franks for battle lined up in dense battle formations, a kind of phalanx, but without proper support of the flanks and rear, trying to solve everything with one blow, a general breakthrough or a swift attack. They, like the Arabs, had a well-developed mutual assistance based on family ties.
Approaching the Vienne River, the Arab army, without getting involved immediately in the battle, set up its marching camp not far from the Franks. Abd-el-Rahman immediately realized that the enemy was in a very strong position and it was impossible to cover him with light cavalry from the flanks. For several days the Arabs did not dare to attack the enemy, waiting for an opportunity to strike. Karl Pepin did not move, patiently awaiting the enemy attack.
In the end, the Arab leader decided to start a battle and built his army in a battle, dismembered order. It consisted of battle lines familiar to the Arabs: horse archers composed "Morning of the Barking of the Dog", followed by "Day of Help", "Evening of Shock", "Al-Ansari" and "Al-Mugajeri". The Arab reserve, intended to develop victory, was under the personal command of Abd al-Rahman and was called the "Banner of the Prophet."
The battle of Poitiers began with the shelling of the Frankish phalanx by Arab horse archers, to whom the enemy responded by firing crossbows and large bows. After that, the Arab cavalry attacked the positions of the Franks. The Frankish infantry successfully repelled attack after attack, the light enemy cavalry could not breach their dense formation.
A Spanish chronicler, a contemporary of the Battle of Poitiers, wrote that the Franks "stood closely together, as far as the eye could see, like a motionless and icy wall, and fiercely fought, striking the Arabs with swords."
After the infantry of the Franks repulsed all the attacks of the Arabs, who, line by line, in some frustration, were rolling back to their original positions, Karl Pepin immediately ordered the knightly cavalry, which was standing idle for the time being, to launch a counterattack in the direction of the enemy marching camp located behind the right flank of the combat formation of the Arab army ...
Meanwhile, the Frankish knights, led by Ed of Aquitaine, delivered two ramming attacks from the flanks, overturning the opposing light cavalry, rushed to the Arab marching camp and captured it. The Arabs, demoralized by the news of the death of their leader, could not hold back the onslaught of the enemy and fled from the battlefield. The Franks pursued them and inflicted considerable damage. This ended the battle near Poitiers.
This battle had extremely important consequences. The victory of Majordom Karl Pepin put an end to the further advancement of the Arabs in Europe. After the defeat at Poitiers, the Arab army, hiding behind detachments of light cavalry, left French territory and without further combat losses went through the mountains to Spain.
But before the Arabs finally left the south of modern France, Karl Pepin inflicted another defeat on the Berr River south of the city of Narbonne. True, this battle was not decisive.
The victory over the Arabs glorified the Franks' commander. Since then, it has been called Karl Martell (that is, the war hammer).
Usually little is said about this, but the battle of Poitiers is also known for the fact that it was one of the first when numerous heavy knightly cavalry entered the battlefield. It was she who, with her blow, ensured the Franks a complete victory over the Arabs. Now not only the riders, but also the horses were covered with metal armor.
After the Battle of Poitiers, Karl Martell won several more major victories, conquering Burgundy and regions in the south of France, up to Marseille.
Karl Martell significantly strengthened the military power of the Frankish kingdom. However, he stood only at the origins of the true historical greatness of the Franks state, which will be created by his grandson Charlemagne, who reached the highest power and became the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire.
Arab army
Army of the Hamdanids X - XI centuries
Late Fatimid army (11th century)
Army of Ghaznavids (end of X - beginning of XI centuries): Ghaznavid palace guard. Karakhanid equestrian warrior in a ceremonial costume. Indian mounted mercenary.
Ancient arabia
Petra city
Genie Cistern in Petra with a hole at the bottom
Snake Monument in Petra
Obelisk (above) next to the altar (below), Petra
Nabatean sundial from Hegra (Museum of Ancient Orient, Istanbul Archaeological Museum
Caliphate literature
Thousand and One Nights
Islamic writing
Applied arts of the Arabs
Bronze candlestick with silver inlay. 1238. Master Daud ibn Salam from Mosul. Museum of Decorative Arts. Paris.
Glass vessel with enamel painting. Syria. 1300. British Museum. London.
Dish with luster painting. Egypt. 11th century Museum of Islamic Art. Cairo.
A sculptural ceiling in the Khirbet al-Mafjar castle. 8 c. Jordan
A jug with the name of Caliph al-Aziz Billah. Rhinestone. 10 c. Treasury of San Marco. Venice.
Arabic architecture
Architecture at Almoravids and Almohads
The Almohad Tower and the Renaissance Bell Section merge into one harmonious whole in La Giralda Bell Tower, Seville
Almoravids invaded Al-Andalus from North Africa in 1086 and united the typhoons under their rule. They developed their own architecture, but very few examples of it survived, due to the next invasion, now by the Almohads, who imposed Islamic ultra-orthodoxy and destroyed almost every significant Almoravid building, including Madina al-Zahra and other structures of the Caliphate. Their art was extremely strict and simple, and they used brick as their main building material. Literally their only external decoration, "sebka", is based in a net of rhombuses. The Almohads also used palm-patterned ornaments, but they were nothing more than a simplification of the much more lush Almoravid palms. As time went on, art became a little more decorative. The most famous example of Almohad architecture is the Giralda, the former minaret of the Seville mosque. It belongs to the Mudejar style, but this style is absorbed here by the aesthetics of the Almohads, the synagogue of Santa Maria la Blanca in Toledo is a rare example of the architectural collaboration of the three cultures of medieval Spain.
Umayyad dynasty
Dome of the Rock
Umayyad Great Mosque, Syria, Damascus (705-712)
Mosque Tunis XIII century.
Arab invasion of Byzantium
Arab-Byzantine Wars
the entire period of the Arab-Byzantine wars can be divided (approximately) into 3 parts:
I. Weakening of Byzantium, the offensive of the Arabs (634-717)
II. Period of relative calm (718 - mid. IX century)
III. Counteroffensive of Byzantium (end of IX century - 1069)
Main events:
634-639 - the conquest of Syria and Palestine by the Arabs with Jerusalem;
639-642 - Amr ibn al-As's campaign to Egypt. The Arabs conquered this populous and fertile country;
647-648 - Construction of the Arab fleet. The capture of Tripolitania and Cyprus by the Arabs;
684-678 - First Arab siege of Constantinople. It ended unsuccessfully;
698 - capture of the African Exarchate (belonging to Byzantium) by the Arabs;
717-718 - Second siege of Constantinople by the Arabs. It ended unsuccessfully. Arab expansion in Asia Minor was halted;
IX-X centuries - the Arabs capture the southern Italian territories of Byzantium (the island of Sicily);
X century - Byzantium launched a counteroffensive and conquered a part of Syria from the Arabs, and in particular such an important outpost as Antioch. The Byzantine army in those days even put Jerusalem in immediate danger. The Arab Sultanate of Aleppo recognized itself as a vassal of Byzantium. At that time, Crete and Cyprus were also conquered.
The heyday of the Baghdad Caliphate under Harun al-Rashid
Arab culture
Baghdad Caliphate
Baghdad architecture
In Baghdad, there was a kind of intellectual center of the Islamic Golden Age - the House of Wisdom. It included a huge library and employed a huge number of translators and copyists. The best scientists of their time gathered in the House. thanks to the accumulated works of Pythagoras, Aristotle, Plato, Hippocrates, Euclid, Galen, research was carried out in the humanities, Islam, astronomy and mathematics, medicine and chemistry, alchemy, zoology and geography.
This greatest treasury of the best works of antiquity and modernity was destroyed in 1258. It, along with other libraries in Baghdad, was destroyed by Mongol troops after the capture of the city. The books were thrown into the river, and the water remained stained with their ink for many months ...
Almost everyone has heard of the burned down library of Alexandria, but for some reason very few people remember the lost House of Wisdom ...
Fortress Tower Talisman in Baghdad.
Necropolis Shahi-Zinda
The appearance of the Shahi-Zindan memorial on the slope of the Afrasiab hill is associated with the name of Kusam ibn Abbas, a cousin of the Prophet Muhammad. It is known that he participated in the first Arab campaigns in Maverannahr. According to legend, Kusam was mortally wounded at the walls of Samarkand and took refuge underground, where he continues to live. Hence the name of the memorial is Shahi-Zindan, which means "The Living King". By the X-XI centuries. martyr of the faith Kusam ibn Abbas acquired the status of an Islamic saint, patron saint of Samarkand, and in the XII-XV centuries. Along the path leading to his mausoleums and memorial mosques, with their refinement and beauty, they seem to deny death.
On the northern outskirts of Samarkand, on the edge of the Afrasiab hill, among the vast ancient cemetery, there are groups of mausoleums, among which the most famous is the grave attributed to Kussam, the son of Abbas, a cousin of the Prophet Muhammad. According to Arab sources, Kussam came to Samarkand in 676. According to some sources, he was killed, according to others, he died a natural death; according to some sources, he died not even in Samarkand, but in Merv. The imaginary or actual grave of Kussam with his relatives, the Abbasids (VIII century), perhaps not without their participation, became the subject of the Muslim cult. Among the people, Kussam became known under the name Shah-i Zinda - "The Living King". According to legend, Kussam left the earthly world alive and continues to live in the “next world”. Hence the nickname "The Living King".
Mausoleum of Zimurrud Khatun in Baghdad
Conquest of Spain
At the end of the 7th century A.D. after long wars, the Arabs expelled the Byzantines from North Africa. Once the land of Africa was a battlefield between Rome and Carthage, it gave the world such great commanders as Jugurtha and Masinissa, and now, though with difficulty, it has passed into the hands of Muslims. After this conquest, the Arabs set out to conquer Spain.
It was not only the love of conquest and the dream of expanding the Islamic State that pushed them to this. The local inhabitants of North Africa - the Berber tribes - were very brave, warlike, violent and temperamental. The Arabs feared that after some time of calm, the Berbers would set out to avenge their defeats, revolt and then the Arabs would miss the victory. Therefore, the Arabs, having aroused interest among the Berbers in the conquest of Spain, wanted to distract them from this and extinguish their thirst for bloodshed and revenge by war. As Ibn Khaldun notes, it is not surprising that the Muslim army, which was the first to cross the Jabalitarik Strait and entered Spanish soil, could be said to be entirely composed of Berbers.
It is known from ancient history that the main inhabitants of Spain were the Celts, Iberians and Ligors. The peninsula was divided into territories that once belonged to Phenicia, Carthage and Rome. After the conquest of Spain, the Carthaginians built the majestic city of Carthage here. Around 200 BC. in the Punic Wars, Rome defeated Carthage, took possession of these fertile lands, and until the century AD. ruled over these lands. At this time, from Spain, which was considered the most important and flourishing place of the empire, such great thinkers as Seneca, Lucan, Martial and such famous emperors as Trajan, Marcus Aurelius and Theodosius came out.
Just as the prosperity of Rome created the conditions for the progress of Spain, so the fall of this city led to the decline of Spain. The peninsula has once again become a battlefield. At the beginning of the century, the tribes of the Vandals, Alans and Suevi who destroyed Rome and France, also devastated Spain. However, the tribes of the Goths soon drove them out of the peninsula and took possession of Spain. From YOU century until the Arab attack, the Goths were the dominant power in Spain.
Soon, the Goths mixed with the local population - the Latin peoples, and adopted the Latin language and Christianity. It is known that until the 19th century, the Goths predominated among the Christian population of Spain. When the Arabs drove them towards the Asturian mountains, the Goths, thanks to mixing with the local population, were able to retain their superiority again. So, for example, among the Christian population of Spain it was considered pride to be a descendant of the Goths and to bear the nickname "Son of the Ready".
Earlier, before the conquest of the Arabs, the nobility of the Goths and the Latin peoples united and created an aristocratic government. This association, engaged in the oppression of the oppressed masses, has acquired the hatred of the people. And naturally, this state, built on money and wealth, could not be strong and could not adequately defend against the enemy.
Also, the appointment of a ruler by elective means led to eternal strife and enmity for power between the nobility. This feud and wars eventually precipitated the weakening of the Gothic state.
General strife, internal wars, popular discontent with the local government and, for this reason, weak resistance to the Arabs, lack of loyalty and spirit of self-sacrifice in the army and other reasons ensured an easy victory for the Muslims. It even came to the point that, due to the above reasons, the Andalusian ruler Julian and the Bishop of Seville were not afraid to help the Arabs.
In 711, Musa ibn Nasir, who was the governor of North Africa during the reign of the Umayyad caliph Walid ibn Abdulmelik, sent a 12,000 army, formed from Berbers, to conquer Spain. The army was led by the Muslim Berber Tarig ibn Ziyad. The Muslims crossed the Jabalut-tarig strait, which got its name from this famous commander Tariq, and entered the Iberian Peninsula. The wealth of this land, its clean air, amazing nature and its mysterious cities so amazed the army of conquerors that in a letter to the Caliph Tarig wrote: “These places are similar to Syria in terms of air purity, similar to Yemen in climate moderation, and similar in vegetation and incense to India, in terms of fertility and abundance of crops, is similar to China, in terms of access to ports, they are similar to Aden.
The Arabs, who spent half a century conquering the coastal strip of North Africa and met fierce resistance from the Berbers, expected to face a similar situation during the conquest of Spain. However, contrary to expectations, Spain was conquered in a short time, in just a few months. The Muslims defeated the Goths at the very first battle. In this battle, they were assisted by the Bishop of Seville. As a result, having broken the resistance of the Goths, the coastal zone passed into the hands of Muslims.
Seeing the success of Tarig ibn Ziyad, Mussa ibn Nasir gathered an army of 12 thousand Arabs and 8 thousand Berbers and went to Spain in order to be a partner in the success.
Throughout its journey, the Muslim army, one might say, did not meet a single serious resistance. The people dissatisfied with the government and the nobility torn by strife voluntarily submitted to the conquerors, and even sometimes joined them. Such major cities of Spain as Cordoba, Malaga, Granada, Toledo surrendered without resistance. In the city of Toledo, which was the capital, 25 valuable crowns of Gothic rulers, adorned with various precious stones, fell into the hands of Muslims. The wife of the Gothic king Rodrigue was captured and the son of Musa ibn Nasir married her.
In the eyes of the Arabs, the Spaniards were on a par with the people of Syria and Egypt. The laws observed in the conquered countries were also enforced here. The conquerors did not touch the property and temples of the local population, local customs and orders remained the same as before. The Spaniards were allowed to address controversial issues to their judges, to obey the decisions of their own courts. In return for all this, the population was obliged to pay a meager tax (jizya) for those times. The amount of tax for the nobility and the rich was set at the limit of one dinar (15 francs), and half a dinar for the poor. That is why the poor, driven to despair from the oppression of local rulers and countless quitrent taxes, voluntarily surrendered to the Muslims, and even having converted to Islam, were exempted from taxes. Despite the fact that in some places there were isolated cases of resistance, they were quickly suppressed.
As historians write, after the conquest of Spain, Musa ibn Nasir intended to reach Constantinople (present-day Istanbul; at that time Constantinople was the capital of the great Byzantine Empire), passing through France and Germany. However, the Caliph summoned him to Damascus and the plan remained unfinished. If Moussa could carry out his intention, could conquer Europe, then at present the divided peoples would be under the flag of a single religion. Along with this, Europe could avoid medieval darkness and medieval, terrible tragedies.
Everyone knows that when Europe groaned in the claws of ignorance, fratricide, epidemics, senseless crusades, the Inquisition, Spain under the rule of the Arabs flourished, lived a comfortable life and was at the peak of its development. Spain shone in the darkness. In Spain, excellent conditions were created for the development of science, culture, and it owes this to Islam.
In order to determine the role of Arabs in the political, economic and cultural life of Spain, it would be more expedient to consider the ratio of their total number.
As mentioned above, the first Muslim army that entered the Iberian Peninsula consisted of Arabs and
berbers. Subsequent military units consisted of representatives of the Syrian population. It is known from history that in the early Middle Ages in Spain, the leadership of science and culture belonged to the Arabs, and the Berbers were subordinate to them. The Arabs were considered the highest stratum of the population (ashraf), while the Berbers and the local population were considered a secondary and tertiary stratum of the population. Interestingly, even when the Berber dynasties were able to gain power in Spain, the Arabs managed to maintain their rule.
As for the total number of Arabs, there is no exact data on this matter. We can only assume that after the Cordoba Emirate separated from the Arab Emirate, the Arabs were isolated from the rest of the countries. However, due to the rapid growth and emigration from North Africa, the Berbers increased in number and gained a dominance in power.
Muslims mixed with the local Christian population of Spain. According to historians, in the very first years of the conquest of Spain, the Arabs married 30 thousand Christian women and brought them into their harem (the harem in the civilian fortress, nicknamed the "girls' room", is a historical monument). In addition, at the beginning of the conquest, some of the nobility, in order to show their devotion to the Arabs, annually sent 100 Christian girls to the Caliph's palace. Among the women with whom the Arabs married were girls from the Latin, Iberian, Greek, Gothic and other tribes. It is clear that as a result of such a massive mixing, a new generation arose after several decades, radically different from the conquerors of the 700s.
From 711 (the date of the conquest of Spain) to 756, this area was subject to the Umayyad Caliphate. An emir appointed by the Umayyad caliph ruled over this territory. In 756, Spain separated from the Caliphate and became independent. It began to be called the Cordoba Caliphate, whose capital was the city of Cordoba.
After 300 years of Arab rule in Spain, their glorious and glorious star began to fade. The strife that engulfed the Cordoba Caliphate shook the power of the state. At this time, Christians living in the north took advantage of this opportunity and began to attack in order to take revenge.
The struggle of Christians for the return of the lands conquered by the Arabs (in Spanish: reconquista) intensified in the 10th century. In the Asturian region, where Christians expelled from the Spanish lands were concentrated, the Kingdom of Lyons and Castile arose. In the middle of the 11th century, these two kingdoms united. At the same time, the Navarre, Catalan and Aragonese states, united, created a new Aragonese kingdom. At the end of the 11th century, in the west of the Iberian Peninsula, a Portuguese county arose. Soon this county also became a kingdom. Thus, at the end of the 10th century, serious Christian rivals of the Cordoba Caliphate began to appear on the Spanish map.
In 1085, as a result of a powerful attack, the northerners captured the city of Toledo. The leader of the northerners was the king of Castile and Leon, Alphonse VI. The Spanish Muslims, seeing that they could not resist on their own, asked for help from the Berbers of North Africa. The al-Murabit dynasty, entrenched in Tunisia and Morocco, entered Spain and tried to resurrect the Cordoba Caliphate. Al-Murabits defeated Alfonso VI in 1086, and temporarily were able to stop the movement of the reconquista. Only half a century later, they lost to a new dynasty that entered the political arena - al-Muwahids. Having seized power in North Africa, the al-Muwahids attacked Spain and subjugated the Muslim regions. However, this state failed to provide adequate resistance to Christians. Despite the fact that they decorated their palaces with such outstanding personalities as Ibn-Tufayl, Ibn-Rushd, al-Muwahhids became helpless before the reconquista. In 1212, near the town of Las Navas de Tolosa, the united Christian army defeated them, and the al-Muwahhid dynasty was forced to leave Spain.
The Spanish kings, quarreling among themselves, left the enmity aside, and united against the Arabs. The Reconquista movement against Muslims involved the combined forces of the Castilian, Aragonese, Navarre and Portuguese kingdoms. In 1236 the Muslims lost Cordoba, in 1248 Seville, in 1229-35 the Balearic Islands, in 1238 Valencia. Having captured the city of Cadiz in 1262, the Spaniards reached the shores of the Atlantic Ocean.
Only the Emirate of Grenada remained in the hands of the Muslims. At the end of the 13th century, Ibn al-Ahmar, nicknamed Muhammad al-Ghalib, who was from the Nasrid dynasty, retreated to the city of Granada, and here fortified the Alhambra (al-Hamra) fortress. He was able to maintain his relative independence, subject to the payment of taxes to the Castilian king. In the palace of the Grenadian emirs, who were able to defend their independence for two centuries, such thinkers as Ibn Khaldun and Ibn al-Khatib served.
In 1469, King Ferdinand II of Aragon married the Queen of Castile Isabella. The Aragonese-Castilian kingdom united all of Spain. The Grenadian emirs refused to pay them taxes. In 1492, Grenada fell to a powerful onslaught of the Spaniards. The last Muslim fort in the Iberian Peninsula was captured. And with this, all of Spain was conquered from the Arabs and the Reconquista movement ended in victory for the Christians.
The Muslims gave up Grenada on the condition that their religion, language and property would be intact. But,
soon Ferdinand II broke his promise, and a wave of mass persecution and oppression began against the Muslims. First, they were forced to accept Christianity. Those who did not want to convert to Christianity were brought to the terrible court of the Inquisition. Those who changed their religion in order to escape torture soon realized that they had been deceived. The Inquisition declared the new Christians insincere and questionable, and began to burn them at the stake. At the instigation of the church leadership, hundreds of thousands of Muslims were killed: old people, young people, women, men. The monk of the Dominican Order Belida proposed to destroy all Muslims, young and old. He said that one should not show mercy even to those who converted to Christianity, because their sincerity is in question: "If we do not know what is in their hearts, then we must kill them so that the Lord God will bring them to his own judgment." ... The priests liked the offer of this monk, but the Spanish government, fearing the Muslim states, did not approve of this offer.
In 1610, the Spanish government required all Muslims to leave the country. The Arabs left in a stalemate began to move. Within a few months, more than a million Muslims left Spain. From 1492 to 1610, as a result of massacres against Muslims and their emigration, the population of Spain dropped to three million. Most terrible of all, Muslims leaving the country were attacked by local residents, as a result of which many Muslims were killed. Monk Belida happily reported that three-quarters of the migrating Muslims died on the way. The mentioned monk himself personally participated in the murder of one hundred thousand people who were part of the 140 thousandth caravan of Muslims heading towards Africa. Indeed, the bloody crimes committed in Spain against Muslims leave the night of St. Bartholomew in the shadows.
The Arabs, having entered Spain, which was very far from culture, raised it to the highest point of civilization, and ruled here for eight centuries. With the departure of the Arabs, Spain underwent a terrible decline and for a long time could not correct this decline. Expelling the Arabs, Spain lost highly developed agriculture, trade and art, science and literature, as well as three million people of science and culture. Once the population of Cordoba was one million people, but now it is home to only 300 thousand people. Under the Muslim rule, the population of the city of Toledo was 200 thousand people, and now it is home to less than 50 thousand people. Thus, it is safe to say that despite the fact that the Spaniards defeated the Arabs in the war, abandoning the great Islamic civilization, they plunged themselves into the abyss of ignorance and backwardness.
(The article used the book by Gustave le Bon "Islam and the Arab Civilization")
Capture of Khorezm by the Arabs
The first Arab raids on Khorezm date back to the 7th century. In 712, Khorezm was conquered by the Arab commander Kuteiba ibn Muslim, who perpetrated a cruel reprisal against the Khorezm aristocracy. Kuteiba unleashed especially cruel repressions on the scientists of Khorezm. As al-Biruni writes in the Chronicles of Past Generations, “and by all means scattered and destroyed Kuteiba all who knew the writing of the Khorezmians, who kept their legends, all the scientists who were among them, so that all this was covered with darkness and there is no true knowledge about what was known from their history before the establishment of Islam by the Arabs.
Arab sources say almost nothing about Khorezm for the next decades. But it is known from Chinese sources that Khorezmshah Shaushafar in 751 sent an embassy to China, which was at war with the Arabs at that time. During this period, a short-term political unification of Khorezm and Khazaria takes place. Nothing is known about the circumstances of the restoration of Arab sovereignty over Khorezm. In any case, only at the very end of the VIII century. Shaushafar's grandson adopts the Arabic name Abdallah and mints the names of the Arab governors on his coins.
In the 10th century, a new flourishing of the city life of Khorezm begins. Arab sources paint a picture of the exceptional economic activity of Khorezm in the 10th century, with the surrounding steppes of Turkmenistan and western Kazakhstan, as well as the Volga region - Khazaria and Bulgaria, and the vast Slavic world of Eastern Europe becoming the arena for the activities of Khorezm merchants. The growing role of trade with Eastern Europe put the city of Urgench (now Koneurgench) in first place in Khorezm, [to be clarified], which became the natural center of this trade. In 995, the last Afrigid Abu-Abdallah Muhammad was captured and killed by the Emir of Urgench Mamun ibn-Muhammad. Khorezm was united under the rule of Urgench.
Khorezm in this era was a city of high learning. Natives of Khorezm were such outstanding scholars as Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khorezmi, Ibn Iraq, Abu Reikhan al-Biruni, al-Chagmini.
In 1017, Khorezm was subordinated to Sultan Mahmud Ghaznevi, and in 1043 it was conquered by the Seljuk Turks.
Dynasty of Arabshahids
The real name of this country from ancient times was Khorezm... The khanate was founded by nomadic Uzbek tribes who captured Khorezm in 1511, under the leadership of the sultans Ilbars and Balbars, the descendants of Yadigar Khan. They belonged to the Chingizid branch, descended from Arab-shah-ibn-Pilad, a descendant of Shiban in the 9th generation, therefore the dynasty is usually called Arabshahids. Shiban, in turn, was the fifth son of Jochi.
The Arabshahids, as a rule, were at enmity with another branch of the Shibanids, which settled at the same time in Maverannahr after the seizures of Shaybani Khan; the Uzbeks, who occupied Khorezm in 1511, did not participate in the campaigns of Shaybani Khan.
The Arabshahids adhered to the steppe traditions, dividing the khanate into estates according to the number of men (sultans) in the dynasty. The supreme ruler, Khan, was the eldest in the family and elected by the council of the sultans. During almost the entire 16th century, Urgench was the capital. Khiva became the residence of the khan for the first time in 1557-58. (for one year) and only during the reign of Arab-Muhammad-Khan (1603-1622) Khiva became the capital. In the 16th century, the Khanate included, in addition to Khorezm, oases in the north of Khorasan and the Turkmen tribes in the sands of Kara-Kum. The sultans' possessions often included districts in both Khorezm and Khorasan. Until the beginning of the 17th century, the khanate was a loose confederation of virtually independent sultanates, under the nominal rule of the khan.
Even before the arrival of the Uzbeks, Khorezm lost its cultural significance due to the destruction caused by Timur in the 1380s. A significant sedentary population survived only in the southern part of the country. Many formerly irrigated lands, especially in the north, were abandoned and the urban culture was in decline. The economic weakness of the khanate was reflected by the fact that it did not have its own money and Bukhara coins were used until the end of the 18th century. Under such conditions, the Uzbeks could maintain their nomadic way of life longer than their southern neighbors. They were the military estate in the khanate, and the sedentary Sarts (descendants of the local Tajik population) were taxpayers. The authority of the khan and the sultans depended on the military support of the Uzbek tribes; to reduce this dependence, the khans often hired Turkmen, as a result of which the role of the Turkmens in the political life of the khanate grew and they began to settle in Khorezm. Relations between the khanate and the Sheibanids in Bukhara were generally hostile, the Arabshahids often entered into an alliance with the Safavid Iran against their Uzbek neighbors and three times; in 1538, 1593 and 1595-1598 the khanate was occupied by the Sheibanids. By the end of the 16th century, after a series of internal wars in which most of the Arabshahids were killed, the system of dividing the khanate between the sultans was abolished. Shortly thereafter, at the beginning of the 17th century, Iran occupied the lands of the Khanate in Khorasan.
The reign of the famous khan-historian Abu-l-Gazi (1643-1663), and his son and heir Anush Khan, were periods of relative political stability and economic progress. Large-scale irrigation works were undertaken, and new irrigated land was divided among the Uzbek tribes; which became more and more settled. However, the country was still poor, and the khans filled their empty treasury with booty from predatory raids against their neighbors. From that time until the middle of the 19th century, the country was, in the words of historians, "a predatory state."
Culture in Spain during the Caliphate
The Alhambra, a pearl of Arab art
Tiles from the Alhambra. XIV century. National Archaeological Museum, Madrid.
Arab harems
The eastern harem is the secret dream of men and the personified curse of women, the focus of sensual pleasures and the exquisite boredom of the beautiful concubines languishing in it. All this is nothing more than a myth created by the talent of the novelists. A real harem is more pragmatic and sophisticated, like everything that was an integral part of the life and life of the Arab people.
The traditional harem (from the Arabic "haram" - forbidden) is primarily the female half of the Muslim house. Only the head of the family and his sons had access to the harem. For everyone else, this part of the Arab home is a strict taboo. This taboo was observed so strictly and zealously that the Turkish chronicler Dursun Bey wrote: "If the sun were a man, then even he would be forbidden to look into the harem." Harem is a kingdom of luxury and lost hopes ...
Haram - forbidden territory
During early Islam, the traditional inhabitants of the harem were the wives and daughters of the head of the family and his sons. Depending on the well-being of the Arab, slaves could live in the harem, whose main task was the harem economy and all the hard work associated with it.
The institution of concubines appeared much later, during the time of the Caliphates and their conquests, when the number of beautiful women became an indicator of wealth and power, and the law introduced by the Prophet Muhammad, which did not allow having more than four wives, significantly limited the possibilities of polygamy.
In order to cross the threshold of the seraglio, the slave went through a kind of initiation ceremony. In addition to checking for innocence, the girl had to convert to Islam.
Entering the harem was in many ways reminiscent of being tonsured as a nun, where, instead of selfless service to God, no less selfless service to the master was instilled. Candidates for concubines, like the brides of God, were forced to sever all ties with the outside world, received new names and learned to live in obedience. In later harems, wives were absent as such. The main source of a privileged position was the attention of the Sultan and childbirth. Giving attention to one of the concubines, the owner of the harem raised her to the rank of a temporary wife. This situation was often precarious and could change at any moment depending on the mood of the master. The most reliable way to gain a foothold in the status of a wife was the birth of a boy. The concubine who gave her master a son acquired the status of mistress.
Only the head of the family and his sons had access to the harem. For everyone else, this part of the Arab home is a strict taboo. This taboo was observed so strictly and zealously that the Turkish chronicler Dursun Bey wrote: "If the sun were a man, then even he would be forbidden to look into the harem."
In addition to the old proven slaves, eunuchs watched over the concubines. Translated from Greek "eunuch" means "keeper of the bed." They fell into the harem exclusively in the form of overseers, so to speak, to maintain order.
In a free presentation, he said: "At 12-13 o'clock on August 18 (actually it was at 9:00) Yazov summoned me. I arrived at him with generals Sorokin and Pikauska-som. Yazov had Varennikov (he was not there!), Achalov , Betekhtin, Shuralev (also not there). In his office, Yazov started a speech that a government delegation was preparing to visit Mikhail Gorbachev, they came to the conclusion that it was impossible to live like this. Gorbachev was proposed to introduce a state of emergency in the country to restore order ...
It should be noted that Yazov pointed out at this meeting: it is impossible to introduce emergency measures without the consent of Mikhail Gorbachev. What persons will fly to the General Secretary for the meeting - they have not announced.
Yazov gave the order for us to go to our places, and on this everyone dispersed. At the meeting with Yazov, Achalov did not express any opinions on the issues under consideration.
At seven o'clock in the evening, Yazov called us again and said: “The delegation is in Foros, negotiations are underway with the president. Apparently, they will be successful and Mikhail Gorbachev will give“ the go-ahead. ”Then he said that Mikhail Gorbachev was ill. Yanaev will take over his duties.
At 4 am on August 19, Yazov called me in touch and announced: "All issues have been resolved, an emergency is being introduced." He explained: "How do you act, Achalov will say." From these orders, I understood that Yazov personally leads the troops.
About an hour later, Achalov called: "The Tula Airborne Division has been declared fully ready, it will have to be moved towards Moscow." To my question: what caused this? Achalov replied: "Yazov ordered." I carried out this command and after an hour and a half reported to Yazov about my readiness to move. Yazov gave the go-ahead and ordered to go to the Tushino airfield area. By this time, I called General Lebed from vacation and ordered him to control the movement of the division.
After 6 o'clock in the morning, Boris Yeltsin called me on the phone to the office and asked me: what is going on? I explained to him that a state of emergency was declared, the troops were marching from Tula to Moscow in Tushino, and then they would act on the instructions of the Minister of Defense. The division is nominated to ensure public order and the protection of the most important state and economic facilities, as well as the life support system.
To this BN Yeltsin remarked, they say, this is an adventure, a provocation. He ordered me to assign airborne personnel to guard the White House. At 8.00 in the morning, Boris Yeltsin's advisor, Portnov, came to see me, and we agreed with him about cooperation.
At about 8 o'clock on the same day, Achalov called me, gave an order to take under protection: State Bank, Gokhran, radio and television. (Radio and television were taken under guard until 6.00. Pavel Sergeevich forgot that he had allocated and sent a reconnaissance company from Medvezhye Ozero for this purpose.) At the same time, I told Achalov that I was taking the White House and the Moscow City Council under protection. Achalov already knew about Yeltsin's request to protect the White House.
On August 20, it began with Yazov asking me: why did Lebed sell out, why was he with Yeltsin? I told him frankly: "Lebed took the White House under protection, Yazov ordered to call Lebed, and I went to Achalov's office for a meeting.
(Not true. Firstly, I did not speak with Grachev. In the morning I was in Yanaev's office, Achalov was there. Yanayev's assistant opened the door and said: “You are being asked to the phone.” I nodded to Achalov: “Go talk.” Achalov returned minutes after five: "Echo of Moscow" reported that Lebed had shot himself. ")
There were people in Achalov's office, many in civilian clothes - KGB officers. Achalov was sitting at his table, to his left - Ageev, Varennikov. Although the meeting was held at Achalov's, the impression was that Ageev was leading it, he spoke out the most, especially against Yeltsin. They say that the Russian government is not behaving the way it should, and force will have to be used, including the landing division.
(I don't know what Ageev said, but what Grachev said is hard to believe. V.I. Varennikov was not present at the meeting, he arrived from Kiev only at 14 o'clock.)
Further, Ageev outlined the plan, according to which one should act upon the capture of the White House, namely: “We surround the White House, the Airborne Forces approaches the building with a wedge, and the Alpha KGB group bursts into the formed passage. Achalov at the meeting behaved passively, did not show initiative. On the contrary, Varennikov got excited, persuading him to act decisively and confidently.
Personally, I did not like this idea. However, I kept my opinion to myself and did not express it out loud for fear that the initiators from the KGB would not understand me. My thought was aimed at finding out the seizure plan to the end and taking appropriate measures based on the agreement with Boris N. Yeltsin.
I want to note: personally, I was not going to take part in the implementation of the proposed capture plan and would not allow the use of subordinate airborne forces. At the meeting, the situation continued to heat up. To cool it down, I told those present that they did not know the situation in the White House area. General Lebed is in the waiting room, let him personally describe the situation. Achalov supported me, and Lebed was invited to the office, who reported that crowds of many thousands were standing around the building, barricades were built. An assault is out of the question, it will cause a sea of \u200b\u200bblood and a civil war. Ageev and Varennikov expressed dissatisfaction with Lebed's report, they say, he is intimidating us. "
Note that Grachev tried to blame everything on Ageev and Varennikov. He did not say that Sergei Fyodorovich Akhromeev and I entered Achalov's office.
We lingered in the office with Sergei Fedorovich no more than 5 minutes. It was about the fact that it is supposed to introduce a curfew in Moscow. Here is what S.F.Akhromeev wrote about this in a memo addressed to M.S.Gorbachev:
"... On August 20, at about 15 o'clock, I met at the Ministry of Defense with DT Yazov at his request. He told me that the situation was getting more complicated and expressed doubts about the success of the plan. After the conversation, he asked to go with him to the Deputy Minister of Defense Colonel-General VA Achalov, where work was underway on a plan to seize the building of the RSFSR Armed Forces. He listened to Achalov for three minutes, only about the composition of the troops and the timing of actions. "
As we can see from the reports of an unborn plan, even such a high professional as Sergei Fedorovich did not grasp that it was a question of imposing a curfew. I kept quiet, this issue has not yet been considered at the GKChP meeting.
“Yazov ordered me to transfer two regiments of the Belgrade division to Moscow,” continues Grachev, “therefore, referring to his order, I arrived at the headquarters. Then Shaposhnikov called:“ How are you? ” ", - and suggested to Shaposhnikov to cooperate together. We decided to land the Bolgrad regiments at two airfields: Chkalovsky and Kubinka, and the battalions of different regiments are mixed, so that it is more difficult to assemble them.
Lebed arrived and reported on what plan had been adopted at the meeting. On reconnaissance at the White House, he finally became convinced of the futility of the operation planned by the Chekists. Lebed showed me a map of Moscow, an ordinary tourist map, on which the positions of the Ministry of Internal Affairs and the Airborne Forces troops were conventionally drawn in pencil when the White House was blockaded. It wasn't a blueprint, just a line sketch, without any elaboration. We had a heart-to-heart talk with him and agreed that none of the Airborne Forces would go to this action. (There was no plan, but according to the dashed outline they are not fighting, and most importantly, there was no order - neither blockade, nor storm, so what kind of "action" of the Airborne Forces refused?)
I informed Skokov, Yeltsin's advisor, about the plan to seize the White House, saying that our troops were not going to attack them. At 24.00 on 21.08, I sent Lebed to the White House so that he could find an opportunity to convey to the defenders about his intention to storm the building with KGB units, advise them to bring up as many people as possible to the building, because the attackers would not dare to shoot at the people. (How dare you in 1993?)
According to the plan, the troops were scheduled to move to the White House at 24.00, and the assault was scheduled for 3.00. I gathered all my deputies and said: the Airborne Forces will not participate in the assault. At about 0 h. 30 min. Gromov called me, warned: "The troops of the Ministry of Internal Affairs will not go anywhere." (Gromov spoke correctly, the State Emergency Committee did not make a decision on the storming of the White House.)
At one o'clock in the morning, Karpukhin, the commander of the "Alpha" group, came to me by communication, he said that he was standing in front of the bridge in the White House area, there were people in front, his group would not participate in the assault. (Investigators seized on this version. Say, the State Emergency Committee demanded to storm, but the subordinates refused. Although no one, including the loyal Pavlik, says that Yazov ordered him, and he did not follow his order. We defended the interests of Russia and shoot at the people were not going to. Unless only Shaposhnikov and Grachev threatened to bomb the Kremlin.)
At about 1 am on August 21, I called Yazov, no one answered the call. (Wow, before the "assault" the minister went to bed?) I called Achalov, they told me that he was sleeping. I have matured the decision to stop any advance of the troops (Pavel Sergeevich, you have already stopped everything). At 2:30, Achalov finally called me, asked how things were going and what decision I had made. I replied: "There are a lot of people on the site, as he can see for himself, and that I have decided to withdraw troops from Moscow."
(Achalov and Varennikov were at Kryuchkov's. We ourselves decided to withdraw the troops. But Pavlik attributed the feat to himself, begging for an order from the "guarantor".)
I believe that only decisive actions by the leadership of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, in particular Gromov, the commander of the Airborne Forces, my deputies and Achalov, the commander of the Alpha group Karpukhin, did not allow the plan to seize the building and the government of the RSFSR.
Everything Grachev says is nonsense. It is no coincidence that the "hero" avoided meeting with justice until October 25 ...
In the 7th century, neither the Persians nor the Byzantines were able to repel the attacks of the Arab army. This army went on a campaign to lead holy war; many of her soldiers were convinced that they would move directly to heaven if they were killed. Many of them did not want anything except such a death as holy people die; for example, the faithful slave of the Prophet Muhammad Zayd refused the post of a military leader, "because the military leader is obliged to protect his life, and he wants to fight and die a martyr for the faith."
Other more practical goals were guided by the many Arabs who reluctantly converted to Islam. They were promised plunder Iraq and Syria, where fertile fields and luxurious cities have long awakened greed in the greedy and poor Arabian people. Before starting the battle, the famous general Khalid ordered to read before the front of his armies the Surah of the Koran "El-Anfal", in which the prophet established a method for dividing military booty. Each military detachment had a secretary who was entrusted with keeping accounts and dividing the booty: everything that was taken from the enemy was divided among the soldiers, with the exception of one fifth, which went to the state treasury.
However, these fanatics and robbers were not made up of disorderly gangs. The Arab armies of the 7th century had the correct military organization; divisions, companies and small detachments of ten men each were made up of them. The officers, who were appointed from the long-standing Muslims, were chosen among the most reliable people; their military experience, acquired in numerous battles, was supplemented by the moral authority enjoyed by the former assistants of the prophet; they constituted a cadre on whose strength one could fully rely. Generals belonged mostly to the Quraish nobility, such as Khalid, Amr ibn al-As, Muawiya, Ikrima, Saad; some of them were the sons of freedmen or freedmen, such as Osama, Ammar. All of them, with only a few exceptions, stood at the height of their task; they were often very greedy for prey and hard-hearted, but they were distinguished by brilliant courage, they were very enterprising and courageous. These old chiefs of robber bands soon learned how to lead real military operations. They themselves invented military tactics for themselves, knew how to use their light cavalry and their skillful archers, aiming directly at the eyes of their enemies and at the eyes of camels. During the battle of Nehavende the Persians were well entrenched; a direct attack on them would be dangerous; the Muslim army called them into the open field with its feigned retreat and, suddenly stopping, lined up in battle formation. During the capture of Damascus, the emirs used military machines, which they learned to control. They did not neglect political means, knew how to refer to arguments, start negotiations on time, use discord between their opponents and encourage them to betray.
The discipline in the Arab army was very strict, but the generals themselves set an example of obedience. Khalifa kept them under surveillance. When Saad, the conqueror of the Persians, built for himself a magnificent palace in Kufa, to which the gates of the palace of the Persian kings from Ctesiphon, sent by the Caliph Omar, were attached, the attorney burned both these gates and the palace. Khalid, never defeated and very popular in the army, was dismissed from his command; he agreed to serve under anyone's command and announced that he would obey even a child if ordered by the caliph. The Arab Caliph did not allow anyone's authority to be higher than his own. He did not allow the generals to act at their own discretion. They had to turn to him for orders on all important occasions. He directed military operations according to a general plan, held back the impatient military leaders who were pushing forward, and undertaken incursions prudently so that his army did not have to retreat. Neither Abu Bakr nor Omar ever retreated for a moment from that vigilant firmness of will that ensures the unity of command, nor from that discretion that leaves nothing to chance.
Defense of the Caucasus (Battle for the Caucasus) - a major defensive and offensive operation of Soviet troops in the second period of the Great Patriotic War in the Caucasus and Transcaucasia.
- From July 25 to December 31, 1942, an offensive was conducted by the Germans, who managed to capture part of the territory;
- From December 31 to October 9, 1943, Soviet troops launched a counteroffensive, recaptured territories and forced the German troops to retreat.
By the beginning of autumn 1942, German troops were able to conquer most of the Kuban and the North Caucasus, but after the defeat at Stalingrad they were forced to retreat again, as they suffered serious losses and feared that Soviet troops would surround them. In 1943, the Soviet army planned an operation, as a result of which German troops were to be surrounded in the Kuban and defeated, but the operation failed - the Germans were evacuated to the Crimea.
Background and balance of power
By June 1942, the Soviet army was in a weakened state after the failure at Kharkov. The German command, seeing that the Soviet troops could not offer worthy resistance, decided to launch an offensive in the Caucasus, taking advantage of the situation. After a series of battles, German troops were able to conquer several cities, including Rostov-on-Don, which opened the way for Hitler to the Caucasus.
The Caucasus, like Ukraine, was a very important strategic point, which German troops sought to capture as early as possible. The Caucasus and the Kuban contained large reserves of Soviet oil, grain and other crops, which could provide serious support to the German army for further battles on the territory of the USSR. In addition, Hitler hoped that by going to the sea he would be able to turn to Turkey for help. Moreover, the German command also counted on the help of the residents themselves, since they were aware that part of the local population did not accept Soviet power.
After the fall of Rostov-on-Don, the communication of the Soviet command with the Caucasus could only be carried out by sea or by rail, passing through Stalingrad. That is why Stalingrad became an important point that the Germans needed to capture. Despite the fact that Hitler threw enormous forces into the fight at Stalingrad, he was never able to take the city. The Germans lost the Battle of Stalingrad. They suffered significant losses and largely due to this, they later did not manage to conquer the Caucasus.
Defense of the Caucasus
The battle took place in two stages. During the first stage of the German army, it was not without difficulty that they managed to take a number of cities: Stavropol, Armavir, Maikop, Krasnodar, Elista, Mozdok and part of Novorossiysk. In September 1942, the German army approached the Malgobek area, where it was stopped by Soviet troops.
The first stage of the battle for the Caucasus took place from July to December 1942. The German army was able to approach the foothills of the Caucasian ridge and the Terek River, but this victory was not easy - Hitler's troops suffered colossal losses. The original plan to seize Transcaucasia was never completed, despite the fact that the Germans were still leading in this operation - the Soviet troops were able to stop the German offensive in time and force the army to stop fighting, since most of the army was simply destroyed. Turkey also failed, which did not dare to enter the war and come to the aid of Hitler.
The German offensive failed largely due to the victory of the Soviet troops at Stalingrad. Hitler, who pinned too high hopes on the capture of this city, simply did not foresee the possibility that the Soviet army could defend Stalingrad and, therefore, one of the routes to the Caucasus.
As a result of numerous losses, by the beginning of 1943, the German army was numerically inferior to the Soviet one several times.
The second stage of the battle for the Caucasus can be considered a counter-offensive by the Soviet troops, which was extremely successful for the Soviet Union. The territories previously captured by the Germans were recaptured, North Ossetia, Kabardino-Balkaria, Rostov Region, Stavropol Territory and other areas were completely liberated.The oil fields and grain were again returned to the control of the Soviet Union, which gave a colossal advantage in the war.
Despite the fact that the Soviet army was able to achieve serious success, it cannot be assumed that the victory definitely belongs to the Soviet Union, since the main goal that Stalin set for his army - to capture and destroy the Germans in the Kuban - was never achieved. The German army fled to the Crimea, however, despite this, the Caucasus again returned under the command of the USSR.
The meaning and results of the battle for the Caucasus
The successes of the Soviet Union in the battle for the Caucasus can be considered one of the most important parts of the general counteroffensive of the USSR in the second period of the war. At this time, the Soviet army not only began to recapture its territories and return captured people, but also greatly increased its combat power and could enter battles with the German army on equal terms. The return to the jurisdiction of the USSR of such an important strategic point as the Caucasus can be considered as one of the greatest victories of the USSR in the Great Patriotic War.
Unfortunately, the battle for the Caucasus also had negative consequences. Part of the population was accused of assisting the enemy and many of the local residents were later exiled to Siberia.
The victorious march of the Soviet Union in the Second World War began with the victory at Stalingrad and the battle in the Caucasus.