Academic expeditions of the 18th century , the first scientific. expeditions, org. Academy of Sciences in order to study nature, economy and population of the Russian Empire. The beginning of a comprehensive research. Urals, Siberia and D. East laid the Great North. (2nd Kamchatka) exp. and the Orenburg expedition (1734-44). June - Aug. 1742, returning from Siberia, our land was visited by one of the hands. academic. detachment of the Great North. exp. (1733-43) acad. IG Gmelin, to-ry one of the first to describe the population. points Yuzh. Of the Urals, including people, in a 4-volume work "A Journey through Siberia, from 1740 to 1743." (Gottingen, 1751-52). Terr. modern People region underwent scientific. issled. during the academic. exp. 1768-74, org. Academy of Sciences by decree of imp. Catherine II. In accordance with the general plan, developed. MV Lomonosov, in the problem of exp. included deepening. issled. nature and population of the Astrakhan and Orenburg provinces. It was supposed to study the technical and economic. metallurgical level. and mining s-dov, collect ethnogr. materials, information about plank beds. education and honey. maintenance, identify development prospects with. x-va, forestry, fish farming and crafts. In the spring of 1768, Orenb was formed. and Astrakhan "physical" exp. The 1st consisted of 3 detachments, headed by Acad. P.-S. Pallas, I. I. Lepyokhin and prof. I.P. Falk (under the general leadership of Pallas). Their routes covered the Volga region from Simbirsk to Tsaritsyn, east. shores of the Caspian Sea, the Urals, mountains and the Iset province, rr. Irtysh and Tobol. People played in the history of these exp. the role of the base city. In 1770–71, Pallas's detachment stopped here on the way to Siberia. From Chel. Pallas traveled across the territory. Wed and Yuzh. Ural. In Pers. prepared reports and natural science. collections for the Academy of Sciences; Pallas met with his colleagues in the field: Falk, IG Georgi, NP Rychkov; a meeting was held on which the routes of Sib. exp. The Pallas detachment included gymnasium students A. Walter, V. F. Zuev, N. P. Sokolov; draftsman N. Dmitriev, scarecrow P. Shumskoy; later Rychkov joined them. After spending the winter in Ufa, on May 16, 1770, the detachment headed along the river. Ufa, across the South Urals. mountains to their east. slope. Having studied the location of rocks and mineral wealth, Pallas came to the conclusion about the difference in geol. buildings zap. and east. slopes of the Urals, mountains, noted for each specificity of the definition. types of minerals and the regularity in the change of rocks from 3. to V. The intersection of the Urals, mountains allowed Pallas to reveal for the first time meridional zoning in the structure of mountains, to develop a scheme, which later formed the basis of his theory of the formation of mountain ranges of the Earth. He explored the caves, located. along the banks of the river. Ay, Katav and Yuryuzan. Having visited the Satka factory on May 28-29, 1770, he described it: “The factory buildings ... are in good condition, and consist of two blast furnaces, which usually operate only in summer, and in winter there is hardly enough water for two hammers. Then follows a small copper plant ... There will be 1800 inhabitants, in addition to which another 500 people are hired by passports. Houses ... are built on a slope near the banks of the factory pond in the wrong streets. " Pallas noted the high quality of the rail. ores in mines, located. between Satka and Yuryuzan, and the possibility of increasing the iron production. Having stopped in the summer of 1770 in the Chebarkulskaya krep., He visited the lake. Uvildy, Argazi and others, discovered on the lake. Elanchik deposit. mica, indicated signs of the presence of gold near the lake. Kundrava. He noted that Chebarkul Cossacks bred the same agricultural. culture as the center. regions of Russia (rye, oats, wheat, barley, peas); from vegetables - cabbage, carrots, turnips; from tech. crops - flax, hemp, tobacco; when using 1 site in tech. 10-12 years yields are high (ten or more). On the lakes in the vicinity of Chel. Pallas recorded an abundance of waterfowl, in the river. Egg - sterlet and sturgeon, to-rye, when moving to spawn, broke dams. Returning from Yekaterinburg to Chel. (Aug. 1770), Pallas visited the Trinity fortress., described the southern. part of modern People region; wintered in Chel. Pallas's detachment crossed the Urals again on the way back from Siberia (1772); completed the collection of mineralogical, botan., zool. and paleontological. collections. The detachment carried out meteorological, climate, and ethnographic studies. research .; for the first time the relief and deposits are described. minerals, the wealth of the Ilmen mountains; rivers, mountain ranges, settlements, settlements are mapped; explored burial mounds, caves and numerous. lakes. Results of issled. presented in the 3-volume work of Pallas "Travel to different places of the Russian state" (1773-88), in the "Topography of the Orenburg" Rychkov. Lepekhin's detachment included gymnasium students A. Lebedev, T. Malygin, N. Ya. Ozeretskovsky; thin M. Shalaurov, scarecrow F. Fedot'ev. In 1768 the detachment's route passed through the territory. Volga region. In 1769, after wintering in Orenburg, the detachment studied the factory grounds. Isetskaya and Ufa provinces. Lepekhin, discovering in the valley of the river. Inzer (inflow of the White) viscous liquid (oil), named. them "asphalt", stated that the deposit. not being developed. Having examined the Kapovaya cave, Lepekhin came to the correct conclusion about the formation of the Urals. caves by groundwater. Following through the Beloretsk plant along the river. White, reached its origins, compiled a description of the origins of the pp. Miass, Uy and Yaik. Lepekhin's detachment arrived at the Chebarkul crepe. (July 16, 1770), from where he moved to Kysh-tym, Yekaterinburg and Krasnoufimsk. Investigated terr. Simsky and Katav-Ivanovsky factories, visited Zlatoust and Ufaley; crossed the high mountainous regions of the South. Ural, crossed the ridge. Zygalga. Lepekhin collected information about the nature of Yuzh. Ural, described factories and mines, deposits. jasper. The squad completed the ring route on 4 Sept. 1770 in Yekaterinburg, July 10, 1771 reached the headwaters of the river. Kams. Mat-l about Yuzh. The Urals was included in the 2nd and 3rd volumes of Lepekhin's "Travel Diary". Falk's detachment included students I. Bykov, S. Kash-karev, M. Lebedev; scarecrow X. Bardanes. In July 1770 Georgi joined them in Orenburg. In the beginning. 1771 scientists moved in different ways to the Isetskaya prov. and connected in Chel. Having explored the Urals, Falk's detachment went to Siberia (July 1771), where due to hand disease. passed to Pallas. Materials exp. presented in "Notes of the travel of Academician Falk", publ. in Russian per. in 1824, and "Description of all peoples living in the Russian state" by Georgi. The works of Gmelin, Lepekhin, Pallas, Rychkov, Falk contain information about the emergence and arrangement of fortresses: Verkhne-Yaitskaya (Verkhneural.), Etkulskaya ("Etkulskaya"), Miasskaya, Troitskaya, Uyskaya, Chebarkulskaya, Chel .; south-ural. settlements; "Iron and hammer" plants: Zlatoust., Kaslinsky, Katav-Ivanovsky, Kyshtymsky, Nyazepetrovsky, Satkinsky, Simsky, Ust-Katavsky, Ufaleisky and Yuryuzansky. The authors provide descriptions of the natural climate. features of Yuzh. Urals, materials meteorological. observations, issled. life and customs of the indigenous and Russian. population, place names, as well as the problems formed in the South. Urals mining industry in particular, social relations at mining plants. During A. e. 18th century were found out geogr. outlines of the outskirts of Russia, studied the wealth of mineral resources, flora and fauna, households. resources of vast territories. Proceedings, publ. according to the results of A. e. 18th century, marked the beginning of the region. local history.
A comprehensive scientific study of the territories of the east and north-east of Russia in the 18th century is inextricably linked with two government expeditions, called the Kamchatka expeditions. Lasted for several decades, they became a key link and a classic model in the history of the scientific and socio-political phenomenon called the Great World Geographic Discoveries. In one place and time, the economic, naval, political, administrative and scientific interests of the state were intertwined. In addition, the expeditions, providing a qualitative leap in scientific knowledge, are of international importance, since they are part of the American historical heritage, important for Japan, since they laid the foundation for its emergence from self-isolation, for Germany, Denmark, France, whose subjects made a significant contribution to expeditionary research. ... The main geographical purpose of the expedition is considered to be the exploration of the Asian coast north of Kamchatka and the search for a place where Asia "converges" with America. Then, to make sure that it was America that was discovered and to connect the open lands with the already known ones on the map, it was necessary to reach any of the European possessions (or to the meeting place with any European ship). The geographic mystery about the ratio of the continents in the north had a long history by that time. Already in the XIII century. Arab scientists considered it possible to sail from the Pacific to the Arctic Ocean. In 1492, Asia was separated from America on the Behaim globe. In 1525, the idea of \u200b\u200bthe existence of the strait was expressed by the Russian envoy to Rome, Dm. Gerasimov. Since the XVI century. on many maps we find the same strait called "Anian". The name seems to have originated from Marco Polo. But on some maps the continents were connected, as, for example, on the 1550 world map by Gastaldi. There was no exact information about the strait, which gave wide scope for various kinds of hoaxes, and this riddle had to be solved experimentally. At the beginning of the XVIII century. Western Siberia was relatively well known, and its eastern part had completely indefinite outlines. The rivers were not known - the main routes of communication at that time, the coastline in the North and Pacific Oceans was not surveyed, and even in places put on the map did not inspire confidence. Even less information was available about the islands and lands lying beyond the coastline. The question of the borders, the peoples inhabiting different lands, their nationality was unclear. It is unlikely that Peter I, being a pragmatist and rationalist, would have undertaken an expensive expedition out of simple curiosity, especially since the country was exhausted by long wars. The ultimate goal of the study was, among other things, the discovery of the Northern Route. The expedition's utilitarian goals are confirmed by a number of projects of that time. For example, F.S. Saltykov (1713–1714) "On the search for a free sea route from the Dvina River even to the Omur mouth and to China", AA Kurbatov (1721), who proposed to find a way by sea from the Ob rivers and others and organize voyages for trade with China and Japan. At the beginning of the XVIII century. in Russia there was an upsurge in various spheres of material and spiritual life. Shipbuilding reached a significant level of development, a regular fleet and army were created, culture achieved great success, a school of mathematical and navigational sciences with an astronomical laboratory was established, a naval academy that trained navigators and shipbuilders, a significant number of general education schools were founded - digital, "small admiralty", artillery for sailor children, etc. As a result, by the end of the first quarter of the XVIII century. the country had the material resources, personnel of shipbuilders, seafarers, and was able to organize a large marine scientific expedition. The transformation of these opportunities into reality was driven by the needs of the economy and political factors. A new period began in the history of the country, which was characterized by the gradual economic merger of individual regions and lands into a single whole. The demand for overseas goods (tea, spices, silk, dyes) increased, which came to Russia through second and third hands and were sold at exorbitant prices. Russia's desire to establish direct links with foreign markets is evidenced by attempts to find river routes to India, sending ships with goods to Spain, preparing an expedition to Madagascar, etc. The prospect of direct trade with China, Japan and India was then most often associated with the Northern Sea Route. The accelerating process of the initial accumulation of capital was also of great importance, and the role of precious metals was played by “soft gold” - furs - which constituted an important source of private enrichment and a significant item of the state budget. To increase the production of furs, it was necessary to look for new lands, especially since at the end of the 18th century. already depleted fur resources of previously developed regions. Furs, walrus bones and other valuables were exported from the newly settled lands, bread, salt and iron were also delivered there. However, the transportation of goods by land was fraught with incredible difficulties. The price of bread delivered from Yakutsk to Okhotsk increased more than tenfold. To Kamchatka - and even more. It was necessary to open a new, more convenient way. At the beginning of the XVIII century. many expeditions to the eastern outskirts of the state were equipped, pursuing narrowly defined tasks. Against this background, the Kamchatka expedition stood out for the breadth of its goals and objectives and the temporal scope. In fact, it was not one, but a number of separate expeditions - both sea and land - which were conventionally united by the name of its chief chief, Captain-Commander Bering. The decree on the creation of the expedition was signed by Peter on December 23, 1724, on the same day with a decree on accelerating the compilation of maps of all provinces and counties. On February 5, Bering received an instruction from the emperor, which consisted of three points: "One or two boats with decks should be made in Kamchatka or in another place there." "On these bots [to swim] near the land that goes to the north, and out of hope (they never know the end of it) it seems that that land is a part of America." “And in order to get lost, where it met with America, and to get to which city of European possessions. Or, if they see what kind of European ship, visit from it, as this bush [shore] is called, and take it in a letter, and visit the shore ourselves, and take a genuine statement, and, betting, come syudy. " The study of the expedition in domestic and foreign historiography has a very complex history, since all its results were declared by the government to be not subject to publicity, secret. Therefore, works (Miller, Krasheninnikov, Steller) were published that covered issues of purely scientific significance. The marine component of the expedition, its geographical discoveries remained unknown for a long time. The Academy of Sciences, which decided to publish new maps with data from the Bering expedition, received an indication that such a step was untimely. Scientific and historical processing of the expedition materials became possible only after a century. Most of the works devoted to the history of the Kamchatka expeditions have the same direction. They are dedicated specifically to the maritime goals of the expedition: "what latitudes the individual parts of this expedition reached, what obstacles they encountered, how the expedition members overcame them, what countries and peoples they saw and how they selflessly perished, trying to open up new horizons and new achievements for mankind ..." However, in addition to all this, the expedition is important in itself as a major historical phenomenon, is an indicator of a number of conditions and relationships of that time. It is associated with the socio-political conditions of that era, with the struggle of well-known political groups of that time, with a number of economic and social relations that took place in different layers of Russian society of that era ... " The question of the scientific results and the significance of the first Bering expedition in historiography causes a lot of controversy and various, sometimes diametrically opposed opinions. There are two points of view on the problem. According to the first (V.I.Grekov, I.K. Kirillov, L.S. Berg, A.I. Andreev, M.I.Belov, D.M. Lebedev, FA Golder, WH Dall), sailors who reached August 1728, 67о19` (according to other sources 67о18`) northern latitude, did not fully solve their main task and did not bring irrefutable evidence of the existence of a strait between the continents. The decree of the Admiralty Collegium read: “Well, over that width 67o18` from him, Bering on the map is assigned from this place between the north and west to the mouth of the Kolyma River, then he put it on the old maps and statements, and so on the non-union of the continents, to establish itself for certain with unreliable. " Thus, Bering had documents confirming the absence of an isthmus only between Chukotka and America, and only up to 67o north latitude. For the rest, he relied on the messages of the Chukchi corrected by him. But even this moment aroused great doubts, for the Dm. Laptev, who was part of the second expedition, was charged with the duty of bypassing Chukotka from the mouth of the Kolyma to Kamchatka in order to unequivocally answer the question of the existence of the strait in these latitudes. The second point of view was defended by V.N. Berkh, K.M. Baer, \u200b\u200bP. Lauridsen, M.S. Bodnarsky, A.V. Efimov. According to their views, the reasons for the mistrust of contemporaries lie in the unfriendly attitude of the members of the Admiralty Collegium, in particular I. Delil, to Bering personally. The first point of view seems to be more convincing. “However, in spite of the fact that the 1st Kamchatka expedition did not fully solve its main task, it did a great deal of scientific work and was of great importance. The expedition did not prove that the continents are divided, but it established that Chukotka is washed by the sea from the east. This was a major discovery for that time, since most often it was about this land that they thought that it was connected with America ... ". Cartographic work and astronomical observations of the expedition were of great importance for their time. A summary map and a table of the geographical coordinates of the points through which the expedition passed was compiled, and the distances between many points were determined. This was the first time such work was carried out in Eastern Siberia. In total, four maps were made during the expedition. The first two were copies of previously drawn maps, one of which Bering received in Irkutsk. The third showed the route of the expedition from Tobolsk to Okhotsk. It has a degree grid, the rivers along which the travelers moved, their tributaries, mountains, etc. The author of the map is considered to be Pyotr Chaplin, the most skilled draftsman of the expedition. Although some authors, in particular E.G. Kushnarev, it is assumed that Chaplin performed purely technical work on redrawing the draft version of the map, and its true author was A.I. Chirikov. The fourth map, drawn up in late 1728 - early 1729, was the final one. It was accompanied by a copy of the logbook and other documents. Currently, copies of this map are kept in the Russian State Archive of the Navy (RGA Navy), the Russian State Military Historical Archive (RGVIA), and the Russian State Archive of Ancient Acts (RGADA). The rest of the copies (about 10) are in archives, libraries and museums in Sweden, England, France, Denmark. All of them are similar to each other in the main points, but differ in additional details concerning, for example, ethnography, the location of forests, mountains, etc. On some copies, figures of Kamchadals, Koryak, Chukchi are drawn. Apparently, they were made by an experienced artist, but not a member of the expedition, since it is completely unrealistic to convey the national traits of people and clothing.In addition, the drawings are located conditionally and do not always correspond to the areas of their actual habitat. For the first time, with the highest possible accuracy at that time, the outlines of the shores were drawn from the southern tip of Kamchatka to the northeastern tip of Asia, and two islands adjacent to Chukotka were discovered. The resulting map accurately reproduced the bends of the coastline, and was highly appreciated by J. Cook. The territories that the expedition did not pass on its own were transferred to the final map from the previously existing maps compiled by the surveyors of previous expeditions. The use of modern instruments, observation of lunar eclipses, determination of geographic coordinates, scrupulous consideration of distances made it possible to create a map that was fundamentally different from other maps, or rather, drawings of north-east Russia of the late 17th - early 18th centuries, on which there was no degree grid, the outlines of the continents depended on the shape of a sheet of paper, the true extent of Siberia was reduced from east to west. So, on the relatively correct maps of Vinius and Stralenberg it was 95o instead of 117o. The maps of Evreinov and Luzhin, Elected Ides had an even greater error. The image of Siberia turned out to be so unusual that it could not but cause mistrust and bewilderment of geographers and cartographers of that time. It had a lot of inaccuracies and errors, if we proceed from the concepts of modern cartography, but it was immeasurably more accurate than on all previously compiled maps. The expedition's map, which for a long time remained the only reliable map of the region, marked the beginning of a new stage in the development of Siberian mapping. Delisle used it, Kirilov included it in his atlas, and Chirikov based it on creating maps of the Naval Academy. Formally secret, the final map became the object of political intrigue and in 1732 was secretly transferred to J.N. Delisle to Paris. Then it was repeatedly republished abroad, over the course of a whole century, being the only manual for geographers and navigators of all countries, it was included in many world famous reference books and atlases. Of great interest is the table of coordinates compiled during the expedition. Travel journals and correspondence contain a lot of interesting information about the composition and weathering of rocks, volcanic activity, seismology, lunar eclipses, meteorological phenomena, fish, fur and forest resources, epidemic diseases, etc. There are notes about the administrative structure of the Siberian peoples, trade, and migration. The first Kamchatka expedition clearly demonstrated the enormous difficulties in transporting goods by dry route from European Russia to Okhotsk and Kamchatka, thereby contributing to the emergence of the first projects of circumnavigation (which was carried out at the beginning of the 19th century by the expedition of P.K.Krenitsyn - M.D. Levashov ). The experience of organizing such a large-scale expedition in terms of technical, personnel, food support came in handy later when equipping the second expedition. Let's also note the political significance: not just the borders of the continent, but the state borders were put on the map. The lands within their boundaries were, in fact, and legally assigned to the Russian Empire. On the basis of the collected observations, Bering in 1731 drew up proposals on the prospects for the development of Siberia, set forth in the "Brief Relation" addressed to the Empress. All of them concerned purely practical matters: the improvement of the region, the development of Kamchatka, the development of industry, agriculture, navigation, trade, an increase in state revenues, the planting of Christianity among the Yakuts, the spread of literacy among them, the development of the iron industry on the Angara, in Yakutsk and other places, the need shipbuilding in Kamchatka, the establishment in Siberia of educational institutions for training in nautical science, the development of agriculture and animal husbandry, the destruction of wine leases, streamlining the collection of yasak from the local population, the establishment of trade relations with Japan. Additional proposals from Bering and Chirikov concerned the further study of the northeastern lands and the Pacific Ocean. Proceeding from the assumption that Kamchatka and America are separated by no more than 150-200 miles, Bering proposed to establish trade with the inhabitants of American lands, for which only the construction of a sea vessel in Kamchatka is necessary. Then he drew attention to the need to study the sea route from the mouth of the Amur River to Japan, in order to establish trade relations. And, finally, he recommended exploring the northern shores of Siberia from the Ob to the Lena by sea or dry. After the Senate considered the proposals presented by Bering, in April 1732 the empress signed a decree establishing the Second Kamchatka Expedition. The goals and objectives of the expedition were determined by the instructions of the Senate of March 16, 1733 and were determined by the results of the first - "small" - expedition. The main goal was "to find the interest of Her Imperial Majesty", ie. new sources of income for the state treasury. At the same time, it was recognized that the achievement of European territories was not so necessary, because they were already known and put at stake. At the suggestion of the Admiralty Collegium, having reached the American shores, “to visit them and reconnoitre genuinely what peoples are on them, and what the place is called, and whether those shores are really American. And doing this and having explored with the right circumstance, put everything on the line and then go for such reconnaissance near those shores as the time and opportunity allow, at its discretion, so that the return to the Kamchatka shores could, according to the local climate, at a good time, and in that their hands should not be tied, so that this voyage would not be as fruitless as the first one. ”In some (earlier) documents of official correspondence, considerable attention was paid to trade with America and Japan. However, later, in view of the complication of the foreign policy situation, the interpretation of the final goals, as they were formulated for the first expedition, was recognized as inconvenient, and the question of establishing commercial relations with other states was hushed up. The expedition itself was declared secret. The chief persons were given special instructions, which they were obliged to keep secret. The question of the final point of the expedition was revised several times, its dates were not clearly defined. Formally, the expedition was assigned large-scale exploration tasks - it acquired a universal, complex character. In general, the following directions of its activity can be singled out: Continuous exploration of the northern sea shores of Siberia from the mouth of the Ob to the Bering Strait “for true news. .. is there a passage through the North Sea. " Execution of "observation and search of the way to Japan" with a passing exploration of the Kuril Islands, of which "several were already in the possession of the Russian, and from the people living on those islands, branded yasak to Kamchatka, but due to the scarcity of people this was missed." Execution of the "search of the American coast from Kamchatka". Exploration of the southern strip of Russian possessions from Lake Baikal to the coast of the Pacific Ocean, since "the need is to look for the nearest route to the Kamchatka Sea (Okhotsk), without going to Yakutsk, although it would be for easy parcels and sending letters." Exploration of the coast of the Sea of \u200b\u200bOkhotsk with the islands lying nearby and the mouths of the rivers flowing into it, from Okhotsk to the Tugur River and "beyond the Tugur, probably, to the Amur estuary." Execution of astronomical "observations" and exploration of Siberia in geographical and natural terms. Research and improvement of the old route from Yakutsk to Okhotsk. Funding was entrusted to the local authorities, ensuring the activities of academic expeditions became a heavy burden for the population of the Tobolsk, Irkutsk, Yenisei and Yakutsk provinces. The work of the expeditions was complicated and hampered by the bureaucracy, denunciation, slanderousness, slander, which was very widespread at that time, as well as the need to analyze them and investigate the activities of officials. The remoteness from the center and the lack of reliable year-round communication routes (Senate decrees took at least a year to fall into the hands of the expeditionary leadership) led to the fact that the solution of many issues was entrusted to local authorities, which actually turned out to be unaccountable to the higher authorities. So the Irkutsk vice-governor Lorenz Lang was instructed to act "at his own discretion and in the vicinity of the local places, to make a determination, it is impossible to announce everything in detail from here [from St. Petersburg] for lack of genuine information in the resolution". To some extent, this eliminated bureaucratic delays, but at the same time opened up wide opportunities for abuse. Of no small importance was the fact that in St. Petersburg at that time they were concerned not so much with the Siberian troubles and the activities of the Bering expedition, as with the vicissitudes of numerous palace coups. The second expedition turned out to be the largest in the history of Russian geographical discoveries in the 18th century and actually consisted of several, more or less successful, expeditions operating independently of each other. Three detachments were engaged in the description of the coastline along the Arctic Ocean, a flotilla of three ships led by M. Shpanberg was sent from Okhotsk to Japan, V. Bering's packet boats “St. Peter "and A. Chirikov" St. Paul "went to the shores of America. Bering's voyage turned out to be extremely unsuccessful and ended for himself and the majority of the team on the island that now bears his name. In September 1743, the Senate adopted a decree suspending the activities of the Second Kamchatka Expedition. According to some reports, all of its officers were ordered to leave the Irkutsk province, but documents show that its members (Rtishchev, Khmetevsky, Plenisner, etc.) served in Northeast Asia for many decades. Researchers pay insufficient attention to this aspect of the history of the expedition, although one of the significant results of its activities can be considered the appearance on the Far Eastern outskirts of the empire of competent and experienced naval officers who, almost until the very end of the 18th century, more or less successfully served in the Okhotsk-Kamchatka Territory in various administrative positions. Thus, to some extent, the acuteness of the personnel problem in the region was removed, since the absence of any well-thought-out purposeful state policy in relation to the Far Eastern outskirts, including the personnel policy, led to the fact that administrative positions were occupied by far from the best representatives of the Russian bureaucracy and officers. people are casual, unclean in conscience and on hand, poorly educated and exclusively overland. It can be said that for the historical development of the Okhotsk-Kamchatka Territory, this fact became one of the important "side" results of the expedition. The main results of the expedition, defined by academician Karl Baer as a "monument of Russian courage", consisted in the discovery of sea routes and description of the north-western shores of America, the Aleutian ridge, Commander, Kuril, Japanese islands. Put on the map, Russian discoveries put an end to the history of geographic myths created by many generations of Western European cartographers - about the lands of Jeso, Campania, the States, Juan da Gama, about the mysterious and fabulous Northern Tartary. According to some information, the cartographic heritage of the Second Kamchatka Expedition is about 100 general and regional maps compiled by sailors, surveyors, students of the academic group. According to the results of the expedition in 1745, the "Atlas of Russia" was published, published under the name of the famous French cartography and astronomer Zh.N. Delil, who worked on it on the instructions of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences. It was the first atlas covering the entire territory of Russia and included in the golden fund of world geography. It consisted of a general map of Russia and nineteen maps of smaller parts of the country, jointly covering its entire territory. Contemporaries had a very high opinion of this atlas. It did not include all the data of the bering expedition, so it did not pretend to be perfect, but, nevertheless, it was accurate enough for its time ... Visual and instrumental meteorological observations became the impetus for the creation of permanent stations in Russia. Observation points from the Volga to Kamchatka were founded, tens of thousands of meteorological information were documented. According to V.M. Pasetsky, at the same time, observations began in Astrakhan, Solikamsk, Kharkov and other cities according to uniform rules and devices of the same type. This entire network was subordinate to the Academy of Sciences, which made it possible to generalize and systematize data on the vast territories of the Russian Empire. In this regard, the idea of \u200b\u200bweather prediction appeared and began to be widely discussed. Meteorological, hydrological, barometric observations I.G. Gmelin, preserved in the archive to this day, are actively used in modern historical and climatic research. Peru Gmelin owns the fundamental five-volume work "Siberian Flora", which consisted of descriptions of more than a thousand plants, which laid the foundation for phytogeography, as well as the idea of \u200b\u200bgeographic zoning of Siberia based on the features of the landscape, flora and fauna. A number of information on economics, archeology, ethnography is presented by him in his "Journey to Siberia". The history of Siberia in all its multifaceted manifestations was studied by GF. Miller is admittedly the "father of Siberian history." He copied, collected, systematized a huge amount of documentary materials, oral testimonies, "questioning points", "fairy tales", many of which later died in fires, floods, from the negligence of officials and have come down to us only in copies of it, now stored in the funds Russian State Archive of Ancient Acts. Only a small part of the materials were published during the life of the author. Basically the so-called. "Miller's portfolios" were being sorted out already during the years of Soviet power. It is customary to associate the name of S.P. with historical and ethnographic research. Krasheninnikov. Although his "Description of the land of Kamchatka" is universal and very versatile. This work organically combines information on civil history and ethnography with studies of nature, climate, relief, flora and fauna, meteorological and seismic features of the most remote Russian territory. A lot of data on the flora and fauna of the Aleutian Islands and Kamchatka were left to descendants by the talented naturalist G.V. Steller. Unfortunately, not all the materials he collected have survived to this day. The broad humanistic views of the European educated scientist were reflected in scientific records and in practical activities - on the initiative of Steller, the first school was organized in Kamchatka. By the 18th century, not a single state had organized such an expedition: large-scale in tasks, vast in coverage area, representative in the composition of scientists, costly in material terms, and significant for the development of world science. A source
The accumulation of geographical knowledge in Russia until the end of the 17th century. its successes were mainly due to the initiative, enterprise and courage of the Russian people, who had nothing to do with science. The famous campaign of Ermak in 1581-1584. the beginning of the great geographical discoveries in Siberia and the Far East was laid. Small detachments of Cossacks and fur hunters in a little more than half a century expanded the borders of the Russian state from the Urals to the Pacific Ocean (1639); they reported the first reliable information about this huge region, which formed the basis of geographical maps and descriptions of Siberia.
Valuable information about plants and animals, their way of life has been accumulated in Russia since antiquity as a result of practical experience and observations of farmers and hunters. This information was reflected in the "herbalists" and "medical books", which in the XVI-XVII centuries. had a fairly wide circulation. However, systematic research in the field of biology in Russia actually developed only at the beginning of the 18th century. An important role in this was played first by the Kunstkamera, and then by the Petersburg Academy of Sciences. The anatomical, embryological and zoological collections of the Kunstkamera were based on the preparations of the Dutch anatomist F. Ruysch and the zoological materials of A. Seb. These collections were later replenished with anatomical, teratological, zoological, botanical and paleontological materials collected throughout Russia by a special decree of Peter I. The first members of the Academy of Sciences who arrived in St. Petersburg found interesting objects for their research in the Kunstkamera, which was transferred to the Academy. the first works were connected with the study of materials available in the Kunstkamera.
In the late 17th - early 18th centuries. a new period in the development of research in Russia, associated with the state policy of Peter I. The broadly conceived transformations of the country demanded the expansion of information about nature, population and economy, the compilation of geographical maps with precise designation of state borders, rivers, seas, and communications. In search of trade routes to India, a number of expeditions were undertaken to the regions of Central Asia. The most important of them was the 1714-1717 expedition. to the Caspian Sea, to Khiva and Bukhara under the command of an associate of Peter I, the Kabardian prince Alexander Bekovich-Cherkassky. The expedition made a handwritten map of the eastern coast of the Caspian Sea. In the first quarter of the 18th century. the Russian government paid more and more attention to Siberia. Peter I invited from Danzig D.G. Messerschmidt and instructed him to search for medicinal herbs and study the nature of the interior regions of Siberia. His journey lasted from 1720 to 1727. Messerschmidt collected and processed colossal material on ethnography, geography, botany, zoology, linguistics and other fields of science. Messerschmidt collected extensive collections of mammals and birds, describing for the first time, in particular, the wild ass (kulan), the Central Asian ram (argali) and other animals. He described in detail the geographical distribution, lifestyle and seasonal phenomena in the life of many Siberian animals. The travel diary compiled by him was used and partially published in the second half of the 18th century. Pallas and Steller, and in the 19th century. - Brandt.
At the end of 1724 - beginning of 1725, Peter I prepared instructions and a decree on the expedition, which received the name First Kamchatka... The expedition had to determine whether Asia connects by land with America, determine the distance separating them and, if possible, get in touch with the population in North America, open a sea route across the Arctic Ocean to China, India and Japan. The head of the expedition was appointed an officer of the Russian fleet, a native of Denmark Vitus Bering, his assistants were naval officers A.I. Chirikov and Dane by origin M.P. Spanberg. On January 25 (February 5), 1725, the expedition left Petersburg. She had a difficult and long journey ahead of her. Only on July 13 (24), 1728, the expedition left the mouth of the Kamchatka River on the "St. Gabriel" boat and headed north, along the eastern coast of Kamchatka and Chukotka. During this voyage, she discovered the Gulf of the Holy Cross and the island of St. Lawrence. On August 15 (26), 1728, the expedition reached 67 ° 18 "48" "north latitude. And although the expedition passed the strait separating Asia from America, the question of the continental connection remained unclear for its participants. This happened because Bering, fearing dangerous wintering, rejected Chirikov's offer to continue sailing to the mouth of the Kolyma River and ordered the team to return back. Because of the fog, the American coast remained unnoticed. And yet, despite the fact that the expedition was not able to fully solve its tasks, its significance was great. She delivered information about the islands and the coast of the sea and the strait, later named after Bering, collected material that proved that there should be a strait between the Asian and American continents.
In 1732, surveyors I. Fedorov and M. Gvozdev sailed from Kamchatka to the northwestern coast of America on the St. Gabriel boat and were the first researchers to put it on a map, thus really proving the existence of a strait between the continents.
As a result of the work of the First Kamchatka Expedition, a fairly accurate map of the coast of Northeast Siberia was compiled, but the expedition did not solve a number of important geographical problems: all the northern shores of Siberia remained unexplored, there was no exact information about the relative position and outlines of the shores of Asia and America, about the islands in North Pacific Ocean, on the way from Kamchatka to Japan. Knowledge about the interior regions of Siberia was also insufficient.
To clarify these issues was entrusted Second Kamchatka expedition, which consisted of a naval unit under the direction of Bering, Chirikov and Shpanberg and an overland one under the guidance of professors (academicians) of the newly created St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences I.G. Gmelin and G.F. Miller; members of the expedition were also the adjunct of the Academy G.V. Steller and student S.P. Krasheninnikov. The expedition also included naval northern teams exploring the coast of the Arctic Ocean, which actually worked independently (hence the other name of the entire enterprise - Great Northern Expedition). Among the participants of the expedition were assay masters, sailors, artists, surveyors, translators and technical personnel with a total number of up to 2 thousand people. Divided into several groups, the Great Northern Expedition explored vast territories of Siberia, the coast of the Arctic Ocean and the northern part of the Pacific Ocean. As a result of ten years of work (1733-1743), valuable geographical, historical, ethnographic and other data on the interior regions of Siberia were obtained, Kamchatka and the Kuril Islands were examined, the shores of North-West America and Japan were reached, and some Aleutian Islands were discovered. Thousands of kilometers of the coast of the Arctic Ocean from the Kara Sea to Cape Baranov, located east of the mouth of the river, were mapped. Kolyma.
Student and later academician S.P. Krasheninnikov, who studied Kamchatka, published a number of works, among them the remarkable two-volume Description of the Land of Kamchatka (1756), which first introduced the world to the nature and population of this remote and interesting in many respects peninsula. Krasheninnikov's book has been translated into English, Dutch and German. One of the results of the expedition was Gmelin's "Flora of Siberia" (1747-1769), which contained descriptions of 1178 plant species, many of which were described for the first time. Krasheninnikov, in his work "Description of the Land of Kamchatka", characterized, among other things, the fauna of Kamchatka, describing several dozen species of mammals, birds and fish inhabiting it, reported information about their geographical distribution and way of life, about the economic importance of Kamchatka animals and about the prospects for animal husbandry in Kamchatka. It also contained materials on the fauna of the Shantar and Kuril Islands, on spawning migrations of fish from the sea to the rivers; he also collected information about the plants of Kamchatka, especially those of practical importance. The third member of the expedition, the zoologist Steller, using his observations, as well as the data collected by Krasheninnikov, in 1741 wrote the well-known essay "On sea animals", which contains descriptions of the sea cow, sea otter, sea lion and fur seal named after him. Steller, together with Bering, reached the shores of America. During wintering on Bering Island, he compiled its first topographic and geological description. Peru Steller owns such works as "Travel from Kamchatka to America with Captain-Commander Bering." Steller also left works on ichthyology, ornithology and geography.
The expedition was not without casualties: along with many ordinary participants in the campaigns, Captain-Commander V. Bering, the head of the Olenek detachment V. Pronchishchev and his wife Maria were killed. The names of some members of the expedition are immortalized on the geographical map (Laptev Sea, Cape Chelyuskin, Bering Sea, Bering Strait, etc.)
In 1741-1742. within the framework of the Great Northern Expedition V.I. Bering and A.I. Chirikov made their famous voyage from Kamchatka to the northwestern coast of America (Alaska). 4 (15) June 1741 "St. Peter" under the command of Bering and "St. Paul" under the command of Chirikov left Petropavlovsk in search of the shores of America. On June 20 (July 1), due to heavy fog, both ships parted at sea and lost sight of each other. From that moment on, the voyage of Bering and Chirikov took place separately. On July 16 (27), 1741 Bering reached the shores of America. During the voyage, he discovered the islands of St. Elijah, Kodiak, Tumanny, Evdokeevsky. Meanwhile, cases of scurvy were found among the crew, so Bering decided to return to Kamchatka. On the way back, he discovered the Shumagin Islands and a number of islands in the Aleutian ridge. The voyage of "Saint Peter" proceeded in very difficult conditions. On the way back, the ship fell into a zone of strong storms. The difficulties were aggravated by the scurvy raging among the team, which killed 12 people. The surviving members of the crew could hardly cope with the control of the ship. The supplies of drinking water and food were depleted, the ship lost control. On November 4 (15), land was finally sighted. The plight of the ship forced the detachment to land on the shore of an unknown land. The newly discovered land turned out to be an island that later received the name of Bering. Here the brave commander found his last refuge. His companions, who survived, in the spring of 1742 built a two-masted sailing ship from the wreckage of St. Peter, on which they returned to Petropavlovsk. As for the fate of A.I. Chirikov, then he is on the ship "St. Paul", having lost sight of "St. Peter", on the morning of July 15 (26) more than a day earlier than Bering, reached North America. Continuing to sail along the coast, Chirikov examined the American coast about 400 miles long, collected valuable information about the flora and fauna of this territory. On the way back to Kamchatka, which, just like at Bering, under difficult conditions, Chirikov discovered part of the Aleutian ridge islands (Adakh, Kodiak, Attu, Agattu, Umnak) and the Adek island, which belongs to the Andreyanovsk Islands group. October 10 (21) "St. Paul" returned to the Peter and Paul harbor. Of the 75 crew members, only 51 people returned with him.
Of great importance for the development of geography and biology in Russia in the second half of the 18th century. had academic expeditions of 1768-1774, covering the most important regions of the European and Asian parts of the country. Five expeditions collected a lot of scientific material about the nature, economy and population of the country. A large amount of material and its analysis contained the works of Lepekhin, Pallas, Falk, Georgi. The results of the journey of Lepekhin - an associate, then an academician - are set forth in a work called "Daily Notes ..." (vols. 1-4, St. Petersburg, 1771-1805). It is characterized by simplicity of presentation and practical orientation of research. From the theoretical conclusions of Lepekhin, attention is drawn to his explanation of the reasons for the formation of caves (under the influence of flowing waters), as well as the belief that the earth's relief changes over time. An important role in the expeditions of 1768-1774. played by Pallas. The results of his research were presented by him in a five-volume essay "A Journey to Different Provinces of the Russian Empire" (1773-1788) in German and Russian. Pallas deciphered the orographic features of the Crimean mountains, established the boundaries of the transition between the chernozem belt and the semi-desert of the Caspian lowland, investigated the nature of the soils and the hydrographic features of this region; he also carried out research on the flora of Russia, zoology and zoogeography. The expeditions of 1768-1774 gave especially great results. Pallas (with the participation of V.F.Zuev, I. Georgi and N.P. Rychkov) to the Orenburg region and Siberia, Gmelin - to the Astrakhan region, the Caucasus and Persia, Georgi - to Baikal and the Perm region, Lepekhina and N .I. Ozeretskovsky to the Volga, the Urals and the Caspian, as well as to the White Sea. Later (1781-1782) V.F. Zuev explored southern Russia and the Crimea. These expeditions have attracted close scientific attention.
Pallas's works "Russian-Asian Zoography", "Flora of Russia" and others contained many new materials. Pallas described a large number of new species of animals, provided information on their geographical distribution and habitat conditions, on the seasonal migrations of birds and fish. A lot of faunistic and ecological information relating to the animal population of Western Siberia and the Ural Mountains is also contained in Lepekhin's travel diary, published in 4 volumes in 1771-1805. He published materials concerning the fauna of the south of Russia in 1771-1785. Gmelin, who described, in particular, the southern Russian wild horse - tarpan, completely exterminated in the second half of the 19th century.
The northeastern astronomical and geographical expedition of the officers of the Russian fleet I. Billings and G. A. Sarychev, which worked in 1785-1793, became world famous. Its main task was to study the still unknown parts of the coast of the Arctic Ocean from the mouth of the Kolyma to the Chukchi Peninsula. The results of this expedition are set forth by Billings in brief notes, as well as in Sarychev's book "The Voyage of Captain Sarychev's Fleet in the North-Eastern Part of Siberia, the Arctic Sea and the Eastern Ocean for eight years during the Geographic and Astronomical Marine Expedition, which was under the command of Captain Billings' fleet since 1785 to 1793 "(parts 1-2, with atlas, 1802).
Thus, geographical and other studies of the vast territory of the Russian Empire acquired in the XVIII century. large scale. It was an amazing in scale research assault on the remote outskirts of the country, which introduced a lot of new things into world science.
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Academy of Sciences of the XVIII century
Decree of Peter 1 on the establishment of the Academy of Sciences in 1724
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Conference hall of the Academy of Sciences and physics laboratory
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Mikhail Vasilievich Lomonosov (1711-1765)
Lomonosov was born in the Astrakhan province in 1711. Father - a state peasant, mother is a deacon's daughter. The young man Lomonosov often helped his fellow villagers in drawing up petitions and business papers, wrote for illiterate letters and became addicted to reading and was drawn to knowledge. Father did not let him go to study, and Misha took 3 rubles from Foma Shubny's neighbor and went to Moscow to study. There he hid his origin and entered the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy (Spasskaya School). I finished the first 3 classes in 1 year. After graduation, Peter 1 recruits 12 best students of this school to the Academy of Sciences, and since 1736 Mikhail listened to lectures by professors and adjutants of the Academy.
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Lomonosov laboratory chemist's office and desk
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Advances in natural sciences.
Biology - Lomonosov - the material basis of living and nonliving nature is one. Anatomy - M.I. Shein (1774) - creation of the first Russian anatomical atlas. Botanical Garden - Demidovs (1756) Medicine - the end of the 18th century - medical and surgical academies were opened Geography - the publication of the first Atlas of the Russian Empire (1745) Geology - accumulated materials about the deposits of coal, oil, minerals, rocks Astronomy - with the help of scientists L. Euler and M. Lomonosov - a network of observatories has been created to observe the stars. Physics - M. Lomonosov and Bernoulli created the kinetic theory of gases. Chemistry - Lomonosov - creation of a number of chemical laboratories, where dyes, adhesives, filters were created ... ..
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Atlas of the Russian Empire
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Academic expeditions (to study new theories unknown to science
1st expedition - search for new routes to India (studied the Caspian, the lands of Khiva and Bukhara) 1719-1721 - Siberian direction, a map of Kamchatka and the Kuril Islands was compiled) 1725-1729 The first Kamchatka expedition of Vitus Bering. (proof of the existence of a strait between Asia and America) 2nd Kamchatka expedition, exploring western and eastern Siberia. Discovery and development of American lands 1768-1774 - expedition studying the nature, population and economy of various regions of Russia.
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OUTSTANDING TECHNIQUES AND INVENTORS
Ivan Kulibin
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Ivan and Mikhail Motorin in 1775
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Ivan Ivanovich Polzunov (1728-1766)
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Education system in the 17th century
Literacy schools (priests) General education schools (2 gymnasiums for noblemen and commoners) Closed educational institutions for noble children. a) Land Gentry Corps (1731) b) Marine Gentry Corps (1752) c) Page Corps (1750) d) Smolny Institute for girls - noblewomen (1764) Opening educational institutions for children of merchants and bourgeois (Demidov breeders) Professional and artistic school 1755- Opening of Moscow University
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Securing new material
Answer the questions: Why was the Academy of Sciences considered not only the center of science, but also of education? What are the greatest achievements of scientists in the field of natural sciences What role did academic expeditions play? Why is Mikhail Lomonosov called an encyclopedic scientist?
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Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov () Lomonosov was born in the Astrakhan province in 1711. Father is a state peasant, mother is a deacon's daughter. The young man Lomonosov often helped his fellow villagers in drawing up petitions and business papers, wrote for illiterate letters and became addicted to reading and was drawn to knowledge. Father did not let him go to study, and Misha took 3 rubles from his neighbor Foma Shubny and went to Moscow to study. There he hid his origin and entered the Slavic-Greek-Latin Academy (Spasskaya School). I finished the first 3 classes in 1 year. After graduation, Peter 1 recruits 12 best students of this school to the Academy of Sciences, and since 1736 Mikhail attended lectures by professors and adjutants of the Academy.
Advances in natural sciences. Biology - Lomonosov - the material basis of living and nonliving nature is one. Biology - Lomonosov - the material basis of living and nonliving nature is one. Anatomy - M.I. Shein (1774) - creation of the first Russian anatomical atlas. Anatomy - M.I. Shein (1774) - creation of the first Russian anatomical atlas. Botanical Garden- Demidovs (1756) Botanical Garden- Demidovs (1756) Medicine- late 18th century- opened medical and surgical academies Medicine- late 18th century- opened medical and surgical academies Geography- publication of the first Atlas of the Russian Empire (1745) Geography- publication of the first Atlas of the Russian Empire (1745) Geology - accumulated materials about the deposit of coal, oil, minerals, rocks Geology - accumulated materials about the deposit of coal, oil, minerals, rocks Astronomy - with the help of scientists L. Euler and M. Lomonosov - created a network of observatories for stargazing. Astronomy - with the help of scientists L. Euler and M. Lomonosov - a network of observatories has been created to observe the stars. Physics - M. Lomonosov and Bernoulli created the kinetic theory of gases. Physics - M. Lomonosov and Bernoulli created the kinetic theory of gases. Chemistry - Lomonosov - the creation of a number of chemical laboratories where dyes, adhesives, filters were created ... .. Chemistry - Lomonosov - the creation of a number of chemical laboratories where dyes, adhesives, filters were created ... ..
Academic expeditions (to study new theories unknown to science, 1st expedition - search for new routes to India (studied the Caspian Sea, lands of Khiva and Bukhara) 1st expedition - search for new routes to India (studied the Caspian, lands of Khiva and Bukhara) Siberian direction, a map of Kamchatka and the Kuril Islands was compiled) Siberian direction, a map of Kamchatka and the Kuril Islands was compiled) The first Kamchatka expedition of Vitus Bering. (proof of the existence of the strait between Asia and America) The first Kamchatka expedition of Vitus Bering. (proof of the existence of the strait between Asia and America) 2nd Kamchatka expedition, exploring western and eastern Siberia. 2nd Kamchatka expedition, exploring western and eastern Siberia. Discovery and development of American lands Discovery and development of American lands Expedition studying the nature, population and economy of various regions of Russia Expedition studying the nature, population and economy of various regions of Russia.
Ivan Ivanovich Polzunov ()
Education system in the 18th century Literacy schools (priests) Literacy schools (priests) Comprehensive schools (2 gymnasiums for noblemen and commoners) Comprehensive schools (2 gymnasiums for noblemen and commoners) Closed educational institutions for noble children. Closed educational institutions for children of the nobility. a) Land gentry corps (1731) a) Land gentry corps (1731) b) Marine gentry corps (1752) b) Marine gentry corps (1752) c) Pages corps (1750) c) Pages corps (1750) d) Smolny Institute for girls - noblewomen (1764) d) Smolny Institute for girls - noblewomen (1764) Opening educational institutions for children of merchants and petty bourgeoisie (breeders Demidovs) Opening educational institutions for children of merchants and townspeople (breeders Demidovs) Professional and art schools Professional- art schools Opening of Moscow University Opening of Moscow University
Consolidation of the new material Answer the questions: Answer the questions: 1. Why was the Academy of Sciences considered not only the center of science, but also of education? 2. What are the greatest achievements of scientists in the field of natural sciences 3. What role did academic expeditions play? 4. Why is Mikhail Lomonosov called an encyclopedic scientist?
