1914 1 world. Countries - participants of the First world war

The starting point in the history of the war, later called the First World War, is considered 1914 (July 28)and the completion - 1918 (November 11)... Many countries of the world took part in it, divided into two camps:

- Entente (block originally consisted of France, England, Russia, which after a certain period of time were also joined by Italy, Romania, and many other countries)

- Quadruple Union (Austro-Hungarian Empire, Germany, Bulgaria, Ottoman Empire).

If we describe the segment of history known to us as the First World War, briefly, then it can be divided into three stages: the initial, when the main participating countries entered the arena of actions, the middle, when the situation turned in favor of the Entente, and the final, when Germany and her the allies finally lost their positions and capitulated.

First step

War began with the assassination of Franz Ferdinand (heir to the Habsburg Empire) and his wife, the Serbian nationalist terrorist Gavrila Princip. The murder resulted in conflict between Serbia and Austria, and, in fact, served as a pretext for the outbreak of a war that has long been brewing in Europe. Austria in this war was supported by Germany. This country entered the war with Russia August 1, 1914, and two more days later - with France; further, the German army broke into the territory of Luxembourg and Belgium. The enemy armies moved to the sea, where the Western Front line was eventually closed. For some time, the situation here remained stable, and France did not lose control over its coast, which German troops were unsuccessfully trying to capture. In 1914, namely in mid-August, the Eastern Front opened: here the Russian army attacked and quickly captured territories in the east of Prussia... Victory for Russia Battle of Galicia took place August 18, which temporarily put an end to violent clashes between the Austrians and the Russians.

Serbia recaptured Belgrade, which was previously captured by the Austrians, after which there were no particularly active battles. Japan also opposed Germany, capturing its island colonies in 1914... This protected the eastern borders of Russia from invasion, but from the south it was attacked by the Ottoman Empire, which was on the side of Germany. At the end of 1914 she opened Caucasian front, which cut off Russia from convenient communication with allied countries.

Second phase

The Western Front became more active: here in 1915 year resumed violent battles between France and Germany... The forces were equal, and the front line remained almost unchanged at the end of the year, although both sides suffered significant damage. On the Eastern Front, the situation changed for the worse for the Russians: the Germans committed Gorlitsky breakthrough, having won Galicia and Poland from Russia. By the fall, the front line had stabilized: now it ran almost along the pre-war border between the Austro-Hungarian Empire and Russia.

AT 1915 (May 23) into war italy entered. At first, she announced the war on Austria-Hungary, but soon Bulgaria also joined the hostilities, opposing the Entente, which ultimately led to the fall of Serbia.

In 1916occurred Battle of Verdun, one of the largest battles in this war. The operation lasted from late February to mid-December; during this confrontation between the German troops, who lost 450,000 soldiers, and the Anglo-French forces, which suffered losses in 750 000 man, a flamethrower was first used. On the Western Russian Front, Russian troops committed Brusilov breakthrough, after which Germany transferred most of its troops there, which played into the hands of England and France. At this time, fierce battles were also fought on the water. So, in the spring of 1916a major Battle of Jutlandthat strengthened the position of the Entente. At the end of the year, the Quadruple Alliance, having lost its dominant position in the war, proposed an armistice, which the Entente rejected.

Stage three

AT 1917 year, the United States joined the allied forces. The Entente was close to victory, but Germany held a strategic defense on land and also tried to attack British forces with the help of a submarine fleet. Russia in October 1917 years after the Revolution, already almost completely out of the warconsumed with internal problems. Germany eliminated the Eastern Front by signing truce with Russia, Ukraine and Romania. AT march 1918 year between Russia and Germany was concluded Brest Peace Treaty, the terms of which turned out to be extremely difficult for Russia, but this agreement was soon canceled. The Baltic States, part of Belarus and Poland were still under Germany.; The country transferred the main military forces to the west, but, together with Austria (the Habsburg Empire), Bulgaria and Turkey (the Ottoman Empire), was defeated by the Entente troops. Finally drained Germany was forced to sign the Act of Surrender - it happened in 1918, on November 11.This date is considered the end of the war.

The Entente troops won the final victory in 1918.

After the war, the economies of all participating countries suffered greatly. The state of affairs was especially deplorable in Germany; in addition, this country lost an eighth of its pre-war territories, which were transferred to the Entente countries, and the bank of the Rhine River remained occupied by the victorious allied forces for 15 years. Germany was obliged to pay reparations to the Allies for 30 years, imposed strict restrictions on all types weapons and the size of the army - it was not supposed to quantitatively exceed 100 thousand military.

However, the victorious member countries of the Entente bloc also suffered losses. Their economy was extremely depleted, all sectors of the national economy suffered a severe decline, the standard of living deteriorated sharply, and only the military monopolies were in an advantageous position. The situation in Russia was also extremely destabilized, which is explained not only by internal political processes (primarily, the October Revolution and the events that followed it), but also by the country's participation in the First World War. USA suffered the least - mainly because military operations were not conducted directly on the territory of this country, and its participation in the war was not long. The US economy experienced a real boom in the 1920s, which was replaced by the so-called Great Depression only in the 1930s, but the war that had already passed and did not greatly affect the country had nothing to do with these processes.

And, finally, about the losses that the First World War brought, briefly: human losses are estimated at 10 million soldiers and about 20 million civilians.The exact number of victims of this war has not been established. The lives of many people were taken away not only by armed conflicts, but also by hunger, epidemics of disease, and extremely difficult living conditions.

World War I is one of world's greatest tragedy... Millions of victims who died as a result of the geopolitical games of the powerful. This war has no clear winners. The political map completely changed, four empires collapsed, in addition, the center of influence shifted to the American continent.

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The political situation before the conflict

There were five empires on the world map: the Russian Empire, the British Empire, the German Empire, the Austro-Hungarian and the Ottoman, as well as such superpowers as France, Italy, Japan, tried to take their place in world geopolitics.

To strengthen their position, states tried to form unions.

The most powerful were the Triple Alliance, which included the central powers - the German, Austro-Hungarian empires, Italy, and also the Entente: Russia, Great Britain, France.

Preconditions and goals of the first world war

The main prerequisites and goals:

1. Alliances. According to treaties, if any of the countries of the union have declared war, then others must take their side. This is followed by a chain of involving states in the war. This is exactly what happened when the First World War began.
2. Colonies. Powers that did not have colonies or did not have enough of them tried to fill this gap, and the colonies sought to free themselves.
3. Nationalism. Each power considered itself unique and the most powerful. Many empires claimed world domination.
4. Arms race. Their power had to be backed up by military might, so the economies of major powers worked for the defense industry.
5. Imperialism. Every empire, if not expanding, then collapsing. There were five of them then. Each sought to expand its borders at the expense of weaker states, satellites and colonies. The young German Empire, which was formed after the Franco-Prussian war, was especially striving for this.
6. Terrorist attack. This event became a pretext for a world conflict. The Austro-Hungarian Empire annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina. The heir to the throne, Prince Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophia arrived in the acquired territory - Sarajevo. There was a fatal assassination attempt by the Bosnian Serb Gavrila Princip. For the assassination of the prince, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia,which led to a chain of conflicts.

If we talk about the First World War in a nutshell, US President Thomas Woodrow Wilson believed that it began not for any reason, but cumulatively for all at once.

Important! Gavrilo Princip was arrested, but the death penalty could not be applied to him, since he was not 20 years old. The terrorist was sentenced to twenty years in prison, but four years later he died of tuberculosis.

When the first world war began

Austria-Hungary delivered an ultimatum to Serbia to purge all government bodies and the army, eliminate persons with anti-Austrian convictions, arrest members of terrorist organizations, and, in addition, allow the Austrian police to enter Serbia for investigation.

Two days were given to fulfill the ultimatum. Serbia agreed with everything except the admission of the Austrian police.

July 28th,under the pretext of not fulfilling the ultimatum, Austro-Hungarian Empire declares war on Serbia... From this date, the time when the First World War began is officially counted.

The Russian Empire has always supported Serbia, so it began mobilization. On July 31, Germany delivered an ultimatum to end the mobilization, gave 12 hours to complete. The response announced that the mobilization was carried out exclusively against Austria-Hungary. Despite the fact that Wilhelm ruled the German Empire, a relative of Nicholas Emperor of the Russian Empire, On August 1, 1914, Germany declares war on the Russian Empire... At the same time, Germany enters into an alliance with the Ottoman Empire.

After the German invasion of neutral Belgium, Britain did not adhere to neutrality, declaring war on the Germans. August 6 Russia declares war on Austria-Hungary... Italy is neutral. August 12, Austria-Hungary begins to fight with Britain and France. Japan opposes Germany on August 23. Further along the chain, more and more states are involved in war, one after another, all over the world. The United States of America did not enter until December 7, 1917.

Important! England first used tracked combat vehicles, now known as tanks, during the First World War. The word "tank" means a tank. So British intelligence tried to disguise the transfer of equipment under the guise of tanks with fuels and lubricants. Subsequently, this name was assigned to combat vehicles.

The main events of the first world war and the role of Russia in the conflict

The main battles are unfolding on the western front, in the direction of Belgium and France, as well as the East - from Russia. With the entry of the Ottoman Empirea new round of actions began in the eastern direction.

Chronology of Russia's participation in the First World War:

• East Prussian operation. The Russian army crossed the border of East Prussia towards Königsberg. 1st Army from the east, 2nd - from the west of the Masurian Lakes. The Russians won the first battles, but misjudged the situation, which led to further defeat. A large number of soldiers became prisoners, many died, therefore had to retreat with battles.
• Galician operation. A huge battle. Five armies were involved here. The front line was oriented towards Lvov, it was 500 km. Later, the front broke up into separate positional battles. Then the Russian army began a rapid offensive against Austria-Hungary, its troops were pushed back.
• Warsaw salient. After a series of successful operations from different sides, the front line became a curve. I had a lot of strength thrown to align it... The city of Lodz was alternately occupied by one or the other side. Germany launched an offensive on Warsaw, but it was unsuccessful. Although the Germans failed to capture Warsaw and Lodz, the Russian advance was thwarted. Russia's actions forced Germany to fight on two fronts, thereby thwarting a large-scale offensive against France.
• Japan joining the side of the Entente. Japan demanded Germany to withdraw its troops from China, after refusing, announced the beginning of hostilities, taking the side of the Entente countries. This is an important event for Russia, since now there was no need to worry about the threat from Asia, besides, the Japanese helped with provisions.
• Accession of the Ottoman Empire to the side of the Triple Alliance. The Ottoman Empire hesitated for a long time, but still sided with the Triple Alliance. The first act of her aggression was attacks on Odessa, Sevastopol, Feodosia. After that, on November 15, Russia declared war on Turkey.
• August operation. It took place in the winter of 1915 and got its name from the city of Augustow. Here the Russians could not resist, they had to retreat to new positions.
• Carpathian operation. On both sides there were attempts to cross the Carpathian mountains, but the Russians failed to do so.
• Gorlitsky breakthrough. The army of Germans and Austrians concentrated forces near Gorlitsy, in the direction of Lvov. On May 2, an offensive was carried out, as a result of which Germany was able to occupy Gorlitsa, Keletskaya and Radom provinces, Brody, Ternopil, Bukovina. With the second wave the Germans managed to recapture Warsaw, Grodno, Brest-Litovsk. In addition, they managed to occupy Mitava and Courland. But off the coast of Riga, the Germans were defeated. To the south, the offensive of the Austro-German forces continued, Lutsk, Vladimir-Volynsky, Kovel, Pinsk were occupied there. By the end of 1915 the front line has stabilized. Germany threw the main forces in the direction of Serbia and Italy.As a result of great setbacks at the front, the heads of the army commanders were thrown off. Emperor Nicholas II, took over not only the management of Russia, but also the direct command of the army.
• Brusilov breakthrough. The operation is named after the commander A.A. Brusilov, who won this fight. As a result of the breakout (22 May 1916) the Germans were defeated, they had to retreat with huge losses, leaving Bukovina and Galicia.
• Internal conflict. The Central Powers began to significantly deplete from the conduct of the war. The Entente with the allies looked more profitable. Russia at that time was on the side of the winners. She put in a lot of effort and human lives for this, but she could not become a winner due to internal conflict. It happened in the country because of which Emperor Nicholas II abdicated the throne. The Provisional Government came to power, then the Bolsheviks. To stay in power, they took Russia out of the theater of hostilities, making peace with the central states. This act is known as Brest Treaty.
• Internal conflict of the German Empire. The revolution took place on November 9, 1918, which resulted in the abdication of the throne of Kaiser Wilhelm II. The Weimar Republic was also formed.
• Treaty of Versailles. Between the winning countries and Germany On January 10, 1920, the Treaty of Versailles was signed.Officially the first world war ended.
• The League of nations. The first Assembly of the League of Nations took place on November 15, 1919.

Attention! The field postman wore a lush mustache, but during the gas attack, the mustache prevented him from tightly putting on the gas mask, because of this, the postman received severe poisoning. I had to make a small antennae so as not to interfere with putting on a gas mask. The postman was called.

Consequences and results of the first world war for Russia

Results of the war for Russia:

• For a step away from victory, the country made peace, deprived of all privilegesas a winner.
• The Russian Empire ceased to exist.
• The country voluntarily renounced large territories.
• Undertook to pay an indemnity in gold and food.
• It was not possible to establish the state machine for a long time due to internal conflict.

Global consequences of the conflict

Irreversible consequences occurred on the world stage, caused by the First World War:

1. Territory. 34 out of 59 states were involved in the theater of operations. This is more than 90% of the Earth's territory.
2. Human sacrifice. Every minute 4 soldiers died and 9 were injured. A total of about 10 million soldiers; 5 million civilians, 6 million died from epidemics that erupted after the conflict. Russia in the first world war lost 1.7 million soldiers.
3. Destruction. A significant part of the territories where hostilities were fought were destroyed.
4. Cardinal changes in the political situation.
5. Economy. Europe lost a third of its gold and foreign exchange reserves, which led to a difficult economic situation in almost all countries, except Japan and the United States.

Results of the armed conflict:

• The Russian, Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman and German empires ceased to exist.
• The European powers lost their colonies.
• States such as Yugoslavia, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Estonia, Lithuania, Latvia, Finland, Austria, Hungary appeared on the world map.
• The United States of America became the leader of the world economy.
• Communism spread in many countries.

The role of Russia in the 1st world war

Results of the First World War for Russia

Output

Russia in the First World War 1914-1918 had victories and defeats. When the First World War ended, she received the main defeat not from an external enemy, from herself, from an internal conflict that ended the empire. It is not clear who won the conflict. Although the Allied Entente is considered the winner,but their economic condition was deplorable. They did not have time to recover, even before the start of the next conflict.

To preserve peace and consensus among all states, the League of Nations was organized. She played the role of an international parliament. Interestingly, the United States initiated its creation, but itself refused membership in the organization. As history has shown, it became a continuation of the first, as well as revenge of the powers offended by the results of the Versailles Treaty. The League of Nations has shown itself to be an absolutely ineffective and useless organ here.

"The times have already passed when other peoples divided land and water among themselves, and we, the Germans, were content with only the blue sky ... We demand a place under the sun for ourselves," Chancellor von Bülow said. As in the days of the Crusaders or Frederick II, the reliance on military power is becoming one of the leading landmarks of Berlin politics. Such aspirations were based on a solid material base. The unification allowed Germany to significantly increase its potential, and its rapid economic growth turned it into a powerful industrial power. At the beginning of the XX century. it took the second place in the world in terms of industrial production.

The reasons for the imminent world conflict were rooted in the aggravation of the struggle of rapidly developing Germany and other powers for sources of raw materials and sales markets. To achieve world domination, Germany sought to defeat three of its most powerful opponents in Europe - England, France and Russia, who united in the face of the threat. Germany's goal was to seize the resources and "living space" of these countries - colonies from England and France and western lands from Russia (Poland, the Baltic States, Ukraine, Belarus). Thus, the most important direction of Berlin's aggressive strategy remained the "push to the East", to the Slavic lands, where the German sword was to win a place for the German plow. In this Germany was supported by her ally Austria-Hungary. The reason for the outbreak of the First World War was the aggravation of the situation in the Balkans, where the Austro-German diplomacy managed to split the alliance of the Balkan countries on the basis of the division of Ottoman possessions and provoke the second Balkan War between Bulgaria and the rest of the region. In June 1914, in the Bosnian city of Sarajevo, the Serbian student G. Princip killed the heir to the Austrian throne, Prince Ferdinand. This gave the Viennese authorities a reason to blame Serbia for what they had done and to start a war against it, which had the goal of establishing the rule of Austria-Hungary in the Balkans. Aggression destroyed the system of independent Orthodox states created by the age-old struggle between Russia and the Ottoman Empire. Russia, as the guarantor of Serbian independence, tried to influence the position of the Habsburgs by starting mobilization. This prompted the intervention of William II. He demanded that Nicholas II stop mobilizing, and then, breaking off negotiations, declared war on Russia on July 19, 1914.

Two days later, Wilhelm declared war on France, in defense of which England came out. Turkey became an ally of Austria-Hungary. She attacked Russia, forcing her to fight on two land fronts (Western and Caucasian). After Turkey entered the war, which closed the straits, the Russian Empire found itself virtually isolated from its allies. Thus the First World War began. Unlike other major players in the global conflict, Russia did not have aggressive plans to fight for resources. The Russian state by the end of the 18th century. achieved its main territorial goals in Europe. It did not need additional land and resources, and therefore was not interested in the war. On the contrary, it was its resources and sales markets that attracted aggressors. In this global confrontation, Russia, first of all, acted as a force restraining German-Austrian expansionism and Turkish revanchism, which were aimed at seizing its territories. At the same time, the tsarist government tried to use this war to solve its strategic tasks. First of all, they were associated with the seizure of control over the straits and the provision of free access to the Mediterranean. The annexation of Galicia, where the Uniate centers hostile to the Russian Orthodox Church were located, was not ruled out.

The German attack caught Russia in the process of rearmament, which was scheduled to be completed by 1917. This partly explains the insistence of Wilhelm II in unleashing the aggression, the delay with which deprived the Germans of a chance of success. In addition to its military-technical weakness, Russia's "Achilles' heel" was the lack of moral training of the population. The Russian leadership was poorly aware of the total nature of the future war, in which all types of struggle were used, including ideological ones. This was of great importance for Russia, since its soldiers could not compensate for the lack of shells and cartridges with a firm and clear faith in the justice of their struggle. For example, the French people lost part of their territories and national wealth in the war with Prussia. Humiliated by defeat, he knew what he was fighting for. For the Russian population, who had not fought the Germans for a century and a half, the conflict with them was, in many ways, unexpected. And in the highest circles, not everyone saw a cruel enemy in the German Empire. This was facilitated by: kinship dynastic ties, similar political systems, long-standing and close relationships between the two countries. Germany, for example, was Russia's main foreign trade partner. Contemporaries also drew attention to the weakening of the feeling of patriotism in the educated strata of Russian society, which at times were brought up in thoughtless nihilism towards their homeland. So, in 1912 the philosopher V.V. Rozanov wrote: "The French have" che "re France", the British have "Old England". The Germans have "our old Fritz". Only those who have gone through Russian gymnasium and university have "damned Russia". A serious strategic miscalculation of the government of Nicholas II was the inability to ensure the unity and cohesion of the nation on the eve of a formidable military clash. As for Russian society, as a rule, it did not feel the prospect of a long and exhausting struggle against a strong, energetic adversary. Few anticipated the coming of the "terrible years of Russia." Most hoped for the end of the campaign by December 1914.

Campaign 1914 Western theater of operations

The German plan for a war on two fronts (against Russia and France) was drawn up in 1905 by Chief of the General Staff A. von Schlieffen. It provided for a small force to contain the slowly mobilizing Russians and to deliver the main attack in the west against France. After its defeat and surrender, it was supposed to quickly transfer forces to the east and deal with Russia. The Russian plan had two options - offensive and defensive. The first was drawn up under the influence of the Allies. It envisaged, even before the completion of mobilization, an offensive on the flanks (against East Prussia and Austrian Galicia) to provide a central attack on Berlin. Another plan, drawn up in 1910-1912, proceeded from the fact that the Germans would strike the main blow in the east. In this case, Russian troops were withdrawn from Poland to the defensive line of Vilna-Bialystok-Brest-Rovno. Eventually, events began to develop according to the first option. Starting the war, Germany unleashed all her might on France. Despite the lack of reserves due to slow mobilization in the vast expanses of Russia, the Russian army, faithful to its allied obligations, launched an offensive in East Prussia on August 4, 1914. The haste was also explained by persistent requests for help from the allied France, which was suffering a strong onslaught of the Germans.

East Prussian operation (1914). On the Russian side, this operation was attended by: 1st (General Rennenkampf) and 2nd (General Samsonov) armies. The front of their offensive was divided by the Masurian Lakes. 1st Army advanced north of the Masurian Lakes, 2nd - to the south. In East Prussia, the Russians were opposed by the 8th German army (generals Pritwitz, then Hindenburg). Already on August 4, near the city of Stallupenen, the first battle took place, in which the 3rd corps of the 1st Russian army (General Epanchin) fought with the 1st corps of the 8th German army (General Francois). The fate of this stubborn battle was decided by the 29th Russian Infantry Division (General Rosenschild-Paulin), which struck the Germans in the flank and forced them to retreat. In the meantime, General Bulgakov's 25th division captured Stallupenen. The losses of the Russians amounted to 6.7 thousand people, the Germans - 2 thousand. On August 7, the German troops fought a new, larger battle of the 1st Army. Using the division of its forces, advancing under two directions at Goldap and Gumbinnen, the Germans tried to break the 1st Army piece by piece. On the morning of August 7, the German shock group fiercely attacked 5 Russian divisions in the Gumbinnen area, trying to take them in pincers. The Germans pushed the right Russian flank. But in the center, they suffered significant damage from artillery fire and were forced to start withdrawing. The German onslaught at Goldap also ended in failure. The total losses of the Germans amounted to about 15 thousand people. The Russians lost 16.5 thousand people. Failures in the battles with the 1st Army, as well as the offensive from the southeast of the 2nd Army, which threatened to cut off Pritvitsa's path to the west, forced the German commander at first to give the order to withdraw beyond the Vistula (this provided for the first version of the Schlieffen plan). But this order was never carried out largely due to the inaction of Rennenkampf. He did not pursue the Germans and stood in place for two days. This allowed the 8th Army to get out of the blow and regroup its forces. Not having accurate information about the location of Pritwitz's forces, the commander of the 1st Army then moved it to Konigsberg. Meanwhile, the 8th German army withdrew in a different direction (south of Konigsberg).

While Rennenkampf was marching on Konigsberg, the 8th Army, led by General Hindenburg, concentrated all its forces against the army of Samsonov, who did not know about such a maneuver. The Germans, thanks to the interception of radiograms, were aware of all the plans of the Russians. On August 13, Hindenburg unleashed an unexpected blow on the 2nd Army from almost all of its East Prussian divisions and inflicted a severe defeat on it in 4 days of fighting. Samsonov, having lost control of the troops, shot himself. According to German data, the damage of the 2nd Army amounted to 120 thousand people, (including over 90 thousand prisoners). The Germans lost 15 thousand people. Then they attacked the 1st Army, which withdrew beyond the Niemen by September 2. The East Prussian operation had grave consequences for the Russians, tactically and especially morally. This was their first such major defeat in history in battles with the Germans, who gained a sense of superiority over the enemy. However, tactically won by the Germans, this operation strategically meant for them the failure of the plan for a lightning war. To save East Prussia, they had to transfer considerable forces from the western theater of military operations, where the fate of the entire war was then decided. This saved France from defeat and forced Germany to be drawn into a fatal struggle on two fronts. The Russians, having replenished their forces with fresh reserves, soon again went on the offensive in East Prussia.

Battle of Galicia (1914). The most ambitious and significant operation for the Russians at the beginning of the war was the battle for Austrian Galicia (August 5 - September 8). It was attended by 4 armies of the Russian South-Western Front (under the command of General Ivanov) and 3 Austro-Hungarian armies (under the command of Archduke Friedrich), as well as the German group Voyrsh. The parties had approximately equal numbers of fighters. In total, it reached 2 million people. The battle began with the Lublin-Kholmsk and Galich-Lvov operations. Each of them exceeded the scale of the East Prussian operation. The Lublin-Kholm operation began with a strike by Austro-Hungarian troops on the right flank of the Southwestern Front in the area of \u200b\u200bLublin and Kholm. There were: 4th (General Zankl, then Evert) and 5th (General Plehve) Russian armies. After fierce oncoming battles at Krasnik (August 10-12), the Russians were defeated and were pressed against Lublin and Kholm. At the same time, the Galich-Lvov operation was taking place on the left flank of the Southwestern Front. In it, the left-flank Russian armies - the 3rd (General Ruzsky) and the 8th (General Brusilov), repelling the onslaught, went on the offensive. Having won the battle at the Gnilaya Lipa River (August 16-19), the 3rd Army broke into Lvov, and the 8th Army captured Galich. This created a threat to the rear of the Austro-Hungarian grouping, advancing in the Kholmsko-Lublin direction. However, the general situation at the front was threatening for the Russians. The defeat of Samsonov's 2nd Army in East Prussia created for the Germans a favorable opportunity for an offensive in the southern direction, towards the Austro-Hungarian armies attacking Holm and Lublin. A possible meeting of German and Austro-Hungarian troops west of Warsaw, near the city of Sedlec, threatened to encircle the Russian armies in Poland.

But despite the insistent calls of the Austrian command, General Hindenburg did not attack Sedlec. He was primarily concerned with cleansing East Prussia of the 1st Army and abandoning his allies to their fate. By that time, the Russian troops defending Kholm and Lublin received reinforcements (the 9th Army of General Lechitsky) and on August 22 launched a counteroffensive. However, it developed slowly. Restraining the onslaught from the north, the Austrians at the end of August tried to seize the initiative in the Galich-Lviv direction. They attacked Russian troops there, trying to recapture Lvov. In fierce battles near Rava-Russkaya (August 25-26), Austro-Hungarian troops broke through the Russian front. But the 8th Army of General Brusilov still managed to close the breakthrough with the last forces and hold the position west of Lvov. Meanwhile, the onslaught of the Russians from the north (from the Lublin-Kholmsky region) intensified. They broke through the front at Tomashov, threatening to encircle the Austro-Hungarian troops at Rava-Russkaya. Fearing the collapse of their front, the Austro-Hungarian armies began a general withdrawal on August 29. In pursuit of them, the Russians advanced 200 km. They occupied Galicia and blocked the Przemysl fortress. Austro-Hungarian troops lost 325 thousand people in the Battle of Galicia. (including 100 thousand prisoners), Russians - 230 thousand people. This battle undermined the forces of Austria-Hungary, giving the Russians a sense of superiority over the enemy. In the future, Austria-Hungary, if it achieved success on the Russian front, it was only with strong support from the Germans.

Warsaw-Ivangorod operation (1914). Victory in Galicia opened the way for Russian troops to Upper Silesia (the most important industrial region of Germany). This forced the Germans to provide assistance to their allies. To prevent the Russian offensive to the west, Hindenburg transferred four corps of the 8th Army (including those who arrived from the western front) to the area of \u200b\u200bthe Warta River. They formed the 9th German Army, which, together with the 1st Austro-Hungarian Army (General Dunkl), launched an offensive on Warsaw and Ivangorod on September 15, 1914. In late September - early October, Austro-German troops (their total number amounted to 310 thousand people) reached the nearest approaches to Warsaw and Ivangorod. Fierce battles broke out here, in which the attackers suffered heavy losses (up to 50% of the personnel). In the meantime, the Russian command has transferred additional forces to Warsaw and Ivangorod, increasing the number of its troops in this sector to 520 thousand people. Fearing the Russian reserves brought into battle, the Austro-German units began a hasty withdrawal. Autumn thaw, the destruction of the retreating lines of communication, poor supply of Russian units did not allow an active pursuit. By early November 1914, the Austro-German troops withdrew to their original positions. Failures in Galicia and near Warsaw did not allow the Austro-German bloc to win over the Balkan states in 1914.

First August operation (1914). Two weeks after the defeat in East Prussia, the Russian command again tried to seize the strategic initiative in the area. Having created superiority in forces over the 8th (Generals Schubert, then Eichhorn) German army, it moved the 1st (General Rennenkampf) and 10th (Generals Flug, then Sivers) armies on the offensive. The main blow was struck in the Augustow forests (in the area of \u200b\u200bthe Polish city of Augustow), since the fighting in the forest did not give the Germans the opportunity to use advantages in heavy artillery. By the beginning of October, the 10th Russian army entered East Prussia, occupied Stallupenen and reached the Gumbinnen - Masurian Lakes line. At this line, fierce fighting broke out, as a result of which the Russian offensive was stopped. Soon the 1st Army was transferred to Poland and the 10th Army had to keep the front in East Prussia alone.

Autumn offensive of the Austro-Hungarian troops in Galicia (1914). Siege and capture of Przemysl by the Russians (1914-1915). Meanwhile, on the southern flank, in Galicia, Russian troops besieged Przemysl in September 1914. This powerful Austrian fortress was defended by a garrison under the command of General Kusmanek (up to 150 thousand people). For the blockade of Przemysl, a special Siege Army was created, headed by General Shcherbachev. On September 24, its units stormed the fortress, but were repulsed. At the end of September, the Austro-Hungarian troops, taking advantage of the transfer of part of the forces of the Southwestern Front to Warsaw and Ivangorod, went on the offensive in Galicia and managed to unblock Przemysl. However, in the fierce October battles near Khyrov and Sana'a, Russian troops in Galicia under the command of General Brusilov stopped the advance of the numerically superior Austro-Hungarian armies, and then threw them back to their starting lines. This made it possible at the end of October 1914 to blockade Przemysl for the second time. The blockade of the fortress was carried out by the Siege Army of General Selivanov. In the winter of 1915, Austria-Hungary made another powerful, but unsuccessful attempt to recapture Przemysl. Then, after a 4-month siege, the garrison tried to break through to its own. But his sortie on March 5, 1915, ended in failure. Four days later, on March 9, 1915, the commandant Kusmanek, having exhausted all means of defense, capitulated. 125 thousand people were captured. and more than 1,000 guns. This was the greatest success of the Russians in the 1915 campaign. However, 2.5 months later, on May 21, they left Przemysl in connection with a general retreat from Galicia.

Lodz operation (1914). After the completion of the Warsaw-Ivangorod operation, the North-Western Front under the command of General Ruzsky (367 thousand people) formed the so-called. Lodz ledge. From here, the Russian command planned to launch an invasion of Germany. The German command knew from the intercepted radio messages about the impending offensive. In an effort to prevent it, the Germans on October 29 launched a powerful preemptive strike with the aim of encircling and destroying the 5th (General Plehve) and 2nd (General Scheidemann) Russian armies in the Lodz area. The core of the advancing German grouping with a total strength of 280 thousand people. were part of the 9th Army (General Mackensen). Its main blow fell on the 2nd Army, which retreated under the onslaught of superior German forces, offering stubborn resistance. The hottest fighting broke out in early November, north of Lodz, where the Germans tried to cover the right flank of the 2nd Army. The culmination of this battle was the breakthrough of General Schaeffer's German corps into the region of eastern Lodz on November 5-6, which threatened the 2nd Army with complete encirclement. But the units of the 5th Army, which arrived in time from the south, managed to stop the further advance of the German corps. The Russian command did not begin the withdrawal of troops from Lodz. On the contrary, it strengthened the ód patch, and German frontal attacks against it did not bring the desired results. At this time, units of the 1st Army (General Rennenkampf) launched a counterattack from the north and linked up with the units of the right flank of the 2nd Army. The gap at the site of the breakthrough of Schaeffer's corps was closed, and he himself was surrounded. Although the German corps managed to escape from the sack, the plan of the German command to defeat the armies of the North-Western Front failed. However, the Russian command had to say goodbye to the plan of the offensive against Berlin. On November 11, 1914, the ód operation ended without giving decisive success to either side. Nevertheless, the Russian side lost strategically. Having repelled the German onslaught with great losses (110 thousand people), the Russian troops were now unable to really threaten the territory of Germany. The damage of the Germans was 50 thousand people.

"Battle on four rivers" (1914). Failing to achieve success in the Lodz operation, the German command a week later again tried to defeat the Russians in Poland and push them back across the Vistula. Having received 6 fresh divisions from France, German troops with the forces of the 9th Army (General Mackensen) and Voyrsha's group on November 19 again went on the offensive in the Lodz direction. After heavy fighting in the area of \u200b\u200bthe Bzura River, the Germans pushed the Russians back beyond Lodz, to the Ravka River. After that, the 1st Austro-Hungarian Army (General Dunkl), located to the south, went on the offensive, and from December 5, a fierce "battle on four rivers" (Bzura, Ravka, Pilica and Nida) unfolded along the entire line of the Russian front in Poland. Russian troops, alternating between defense and counterattack, repelled the German onslaught on Ravka and threw the Austrians back beyond Nida. The Battle of the Four Rivers was distinguished by extreme tenacity and significant losses on both sides. The damage of the Russian army amounted to 200 thousand people. Its cadre composition was especially affected, which directly influenced the sad outcome of the 1915 campaign for the Russians. The losses of the 9th German army exceeded 100 thousand people.

Campaign of 1914 Caucasian theater of military operations

The Young Turkish government in Istanbul (which came to power in Turkey in 1908) did not wait for the gradual weakening of Russia in the confrontation with Germany and already in 1914 entered the war. Without serious preparation, Turkish troops immediately launched a decisive offensive in the Caucasus direction in order to recapture the lands lost during the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878. The 90 thousandth Turkish army was headed by the Minister of War Enver Pasha. These troops were opposed by units of the 63,000-strong Caucasian army under the general command of the governor in the Caucasus, General Vorontsov-Dashkova (the actual commander of the troops was General A.Z. Myshlaevsky). The central event of the 1914 campaign in this theater of operations was the Sarykamysh operation.

Sarikamysh operation (1914-1915). It took place from December 9, 1914 to January 5, 1915. The Turkish command planned to encircle and destroy the Sarykamysh detachment of the Caucasian army (General Berkhman), and then capture Kars. Throwing back the advanced units of the Russians (the Oltinsky detachment), the Turks on December 12, in a severe frost, reached the approaches to Sarykamysh. There were only a few units (up to 1 battalion). Led by Colonel of the General Staff Bukretov, who was there, they heroically repelled the first onslaught of the whole Turkish corps. On December 14, reinforcements arrived in time for the defenders of Sarykamysh, and General Przhevalsky led the defense. Failing to take Sarikamysh, the Turkish corps in the snow-capped mountains lost only 10 thousand people with frostbite. On December 17, the Russians launched a counteroffensive and drove the Turks away from Sarykamysh. Then Enver Pasha transferred the main blow to Karaudan, which was defended by the units of General Berkhman. But here, too, the fierce onslaught of the Turks was repelled. Meanwhile, the Russian troops advancing near Sarykamish on December 22 completely surrounded the 9th Turkish corps. On December 25, General Yudenich became the commander of the Caucasian army, who gave the order to launch a counteroffensive near Karaudan. Having thrown back the remnants of the 3rd Army by 30-40 km by January 5, 1915, the Russians stopped the pursuit, which was conducted in a 20-degree cold. The troops of Enver Pasha lost 78 thousand people killed, frozen, wounded and captured. (over 80% of the composition). Russian losses amounted to 26 thousand people. (killed, wounded, frostbitten). The victory at Sarykamish stopped Turkish aggression in the Transcaucasus and strengthened the position of the Caucasian army.

Campaign of 1914 War at sea

During this period, the main actions unfolded on the Black Sea, where Turkey began the war with shelling of Russian ports (Odessa, Sevastopol, Feodosia). However, soon the activity of the Turkish fleet (which was based on the German battle cruiser Goeben) was suppressed by the Russian fleet.

The battle at Cape Sarych. November 5, 1914 German battle cruiser "Goeben" under the command of Rear Admiral Sushon attacked a Russian squadron of five battleships near Cape Sarych. In fact, the entire battle was reduced to an artillery duel between the Goeben and the Russian lead battleship Eustathius. Thanks to the accurate fire of the Russian artillerymen, "Goeben" received 14 accurate hits. A fire broke out on the German cruiser, and Souchon, without waiting for the rest of the Russian ships to enter the battle, gave the order to retreat to Constantinople (there "Goeben" was repaired until December, and then, having gone out to sea, was blown up by a mine and again stood up for repairs). "Evstafiy" received only 4 accurate hits and left the battle without serious damage. The battle at Cape Sarych became a turning point in the struggle for dominance in the Black Sea. Having checked the fortress of the Black Sea borders of Russia in this battle, the Turkish fleet stopped active operations off the Russian coast. The Russian fleet, on the other hand, gradually seized the initiative in sea communications.

Campaign 1915 Western Front

By the beginning of 1915, Russian troops held the front near the German border and in Austrian Galicia. The 1914 campaign did not bring decisive results. Its main result was the collapse of the German Schlieffen plan. “If there were no casualties from Russia in 1914,” declared a quarter of a century later (in 1939), the British Prime Minister Lloyd George, “then German troops would not only have captured Paris, but their garrisons would still be in Belgium and France ". In 1915, the Russian command planned to continue offensive operations on the flanks. This meant the occupation of East Prussia and the invasion of the Hungarian Plain through the Carpathians. However, for a simultaneous offensive, the Russians did not have sufficient forces and means. In the course of active military operations in 1914 in the fields of Poland, Galicia and East Prussia, a Russian career army was killed. Its loss had to be replenished with a spare, insufficiently trained contingent. "From that time," recalled General AA Brusilov, "the regular character of the troops was lost, and our army began to look more and more like a poorly trained militia army." Another major problem was the arms crisis, which in one way or another is characteristic of all the belligerent countries. It turned out that the consumption of ammunition is dozens of times higher than the calculated one. Russia, with its underdeveloped industry, was particularly affected by this problem. Domestic factories could only meet the needs of the army by 15-30%. The task of urgent restructuring of the entire industry on a war footing arose clearly. In Russia, this process dragged on until the end of the summer of 1915. The lack of weapons was compounded by poor supplies. Thus, the Russian armed forces entered the new year with a shortage of weapons and military personnel. This fatally affected the 1915 campaign. The results of the fighting in the east forced the Germans to radically revise the Schiffen plan.

The main rival, the German leadership now considered Russia. Its troops were 1.5 times closer to Berlin than the French army. At the same time, they threatened to enter the Hungarian Plain and defeat Austria-Hungary. Fearing a protracted war on two fronts, the Germans decided to send their main forces eastward to end Russia. In addition to the personnel and material weakening of the Russian army, this task was facilitated by the possibility of waging a mobile war in the east (in the west by that time a continuous positional front with a powerful system of fortifications had already emerged, the breakthrough of which cost enormous sacrifices). In addition, the capture of the Polish industrial region provided Germany with an additional source of resources. After an unsuccessful frontal onslaught in Poland, the German command switched to a plan of flank attacks. It consisted in deep coverage from the north (from the side of East Prussia) of the right flank of the Russian troops in Poland. Simultaneously from the south (from the Carpathian region) the Austro-Hungarian troops struck. The ultimate goal of these "strategic Cannes" was to encircle the Russian armies in the "Polish bag".

Carpathian battle (1915). It was the first attempt by both sides to implement their strategic plans. The troops of the Southwestern Front (General Ivanov) tried to break through the Carpathian passes to the Hungarian Plain and defeat Austria-Hungary. In turn, the Austro-German command also had offensive plans in the Carpathians. It set the task of breaking through from here to Przemysl and driving the Russians out of Galicia. In a strategic sense, the breakthrough of the Austro-German troops in the Carpathians, together with the onslaught of the Germans from East Prussia, had the goal of encircling the Russian troops in Poland. The battle in the Carpathians began on January 7 with an almost simultaneous offensive of the Austro-German armies and the Russian 8th Army (General Brusilov). There was a counter battle, called the "rubber war". Both sides pressing on each other had to go deep into the Carpathians, then retreat back. The battles in the snow-capped mountains were marked by great tenacity. The Austro-German troops managed to press the left flank of the 8th Army, but they could not break through to Przemysl. Having received reinforcements, Brusilov repelled their advance. "Bypassing the troops in mountain positions," he recalled, "I admired these heroes who bravely endured the horrific burden of the mountain winter war with insufficient weapons, having three times the strongest enemy against them." Only the 7th Austrian army (General Pflanzer-Baltin), which took Chernivtsi, was able to achieve partial successes. At the beginning of March 1915, the Southwestern Front launched a general offensive amid a spring thaw. Climbing the Carpathian slopes and overcoming fierce enemy resistance, the Russian troops advanced 20-25 km and captured part of the passes. To repel their onslaught, the German command transferred new forces to this sector. The Russian Headquarters, due to heavy battles in the East Prussian direction, could not provide the South-Western Front with the necessary reserves. Bloody frontal battles in the Carpathians continued until April. They cost enormous sacrifices, but did not bring decisive success to either side. The Russians lost about 1 million people in the Carpathian battle, the Austrians and Germans - 800 thousand people.

Second August operation (1915). Soon after the beginning of the Carpathian battle, fierce battles broke out on the northern flank of the Russian-German front. On January 25, 1915, the 8th (General von Belov) and 10th (General Eichhorn) German armies launched an offensive from East Prussia. Their main blow fell in the area of \u200b\u200bthe Polish city of Augustow, where the 10th Russian army (General Sivere) was located. Having created a numerical superiority in this direction, the Germans attacked the flanks of the Sievers army and tried to surround it. At the second stage, a breakthrough of the entire North-Western Front was envisaged. But because of the resilience of the soldiers of the 10th Army, the Germans did not succeed in completely taking it in the pincers. Only the 20th corps of General Bulgakov was surrounded. For 10 days, he valiantly repulsed the attacks of the German units in the snow-covered August forests, preventing them from conducting a further offensive. Having used up all the ammunition, the remnants of the corps in a desperate impulse attacked the German positions in the hope of breaking through to their own. Having overturned the German infantry in hand-to-hand combat, the Russian soldiers died heroically under the fire of German guns. "The attempt to break through was sheer madness. But this holy madness is a heroism that showed the Russian warrior in his full light, which we know from the time of Skobelev, the time of the storming of Plevna, the battle in the Caucasus and the storming of Warsaw! The Russian soldier knows how to fight very well, he endures all sorts of hardships and is able to be persistent, even if certain death is inevitable! "- wrote in those days the German war correspondent R. Brandt. Thanks to this courageous resistance, the 10th Army was able to withdraw most of its forces from the attack by mid-February and took up defenses on the Kovno-Osovets line. The North-Western Front held out, and then managed to partially restore the lost positions.

Prasnysh operation (1915). Almost simultaneously, fighting broke out in another section of the East Prussian border, where the 12th Russian army (General Plehve) was stationed. On February 7, in the area of \u200b\u200bPrasnysh (Poland), it was attacked by units of the 8th German Army (General von Belov). The city was defended by a detachment under the command of Colonel Barybin, which for several days heroically repelled the attacks of superior German forces. February 11, 1915 Prasnysh fell. But his staunch defenses gave the Russians time to pull up the necessary reserves, which were being prepared in accordance with the Russian plan for the winter offensive in East Prussia. On February 12, the 1st Siberian corps of General Pleshkov approached Prasnysh, which attacked the Germans on the move. In a two-day winter battle, the Siberians utterly defeated the German formations and drove them out of the city. Soon, the entire 12th Army, replenished with reserves, went on a general offensive, which, after stubborn battles, threw the Germans back to the borders of East Prussia. Meanwhile, the 10th Army also went on the offensive, which cleared the Augustow forests of the Germans. The front was restored, but the Russian troops could not achieve more. The Germans lost about 40 thousand people in this battle, the Russians - about 100 thousand people. The oncoming battles near the borders of East Prussia and in the Carpathians depleted the reserves of the Russian army on the eve of a formidable blow, which the Austro-German command was already preparing for it.

Gorlitsky breakthrough (1915). The beginning of the Great Retreat. Unable to press the Russian troops at the borders of East Prussia and in the Carpathians, the German command decided to implement a third breakthrough option. It was supposed to be carried out between the Vistula and the Carpathians, in the Gorlice region. By that time, more than half of the armed forces of the Austro-German bloc were concentrated against Russia. On the 35-kilometer section of the breakthrough near Gorlice, a strike group was created under the command of General Mackensen. It was superior to the 3rd Russian army (General Radko-Dmitriev) standing in this sector: in manpower - 2 times, in light artillery - 3 times, in heavy artillery - 40 times, in machine guns - 2.5 times. On April 19, 1915, Mackensen's group (126 thousand people) went on the offensive. The Russian command, knowing about the build-up of forces in this sector, did not provide a timely counterstrike. Large reinforcements were sent here with a delay, were brought into battle in parts and quickly died in battles with superior enemy forces. The Gorlitsky breakthrough clearly highlighted the problem of lack of ammunition, especially shells. The overwhelming superiority in heavy artillery was one of the main reasons for this largest German success on the Russian front. “Eleven days of the terrible roar of German heavy artillery, literally tearing down whole rows of trenches together with their defenders,” recalled General A.I.Denikin, a participant in those events. “We almost did not answer - there was nothing. The regiments, exhausted to the last degree, repulsed one attack for the other - with bayonets or point-blank shooting, blood was pouring, the ranks were thinning, burial mounds grew ... Two regiments were almost destroyed by one fire. "

The Gorlitsky breakthrough created a threat to encircle the Russian troops in the Carpathians, the troops of the South-Western Front began a widespread withdrawal. By June 22, having lost 500 thousand people, they left all of Galicia. Thanks to the courageous resistance of Russian soldiers and officers, Mackensen's group was not able to quickly enter the operational space. On the whole, its offensive was reduced to "pushing through" the Russian front. He was seriously pushed east, but not defeated. Nevertheless, the Gorlitsky breakthrough and the German offensive from East Prussia created a threat to encircle the Russian armies in Poland. The so-called. Great retreat, during which the Russian troops in the spring and summer of 1915 left Galicia, Lithuania, Poland. Meanwhile, Russia's allies were busy strengthening their defenses and did almost nothing to seriously distract the Germans from the offensive in the East. The allied leadership used the respite given to it to mobilize the economy for the needs of the war. "We," Lloyd George later admitted, "left Russia to her fate."

Prasnyshskoe and Narevskoe battles (1915). After the successful completion of the Gorlitsky breakthrough, the German command began to carry out the second act of its "strategic Cannes" and struck from the north, from East Prussia, on the positions of the North-Western Front (General Alekseev). On June 30, 1915, in the Prasnysh area, the 12th German Army (General Galvits) launched an offensive. She was opposed here by the 1st (General Litvinov) and 12th (General Churin) Russian armies. The German troops had superiority in the number of personnel (177 thousand against 141 thousand people) and weapons. The superiority in artillery was especially significant (1256 versus 377 guns). After a hurricane of fire and a powerful onslaught, the German units captured the main defense zone. But they failed to achieve the expected breakthrough of the front line, let alone the defeat of the 1st and 12th armies. The Russians everywhere stubbornly defended themselves, launching counterattacks in threatened areas. For 6 days of continuous fighting, the soldiers of Galvits were able to advance 30-35 km. Not even reaching the Narew River, the Germans stopped their offensive. The German command began to regroup forces and pulled up reserves for a new strike. In the Prasnysh battle, the Russians lost about 40 thousand people, the Germans - about 10 thousand people. The fortitude of the soldiers of the 1st and 12th armies thwarted the German plan to encircle Russian troops in Poland. But the danger hanging from the north over the Warsaw area forced the Russian command to begin withdrawing its armies beyond the Vistula.

Having tightened up the reserves, the Germans on July 10 again went over to the offensive. The operation was attended by the 12th (General Galvitz) and 8th (General Scholz) German armies. The German onslaught on the 140-kilometer Narev front was held back by the same 1st and 12th armies. Having almost double the superiority in manpower and fivefold in artillery, the Germans persistently tried to break through the Narev line. They managed to cross the river in several places, but the Russians, with fierce counterattacks, until the beginning of August, did not give the German units the opportunity to expand the bridgeheads. A particularly important role was played by the defense of the Osovets fortress, which covered the right flank of the Russian troops in these battles. The persistence of its defenders did not allow the Germans to go to the rear of the Russian armies defending Warsaw. In the meantime, Russian troops were able to evacuate freely from the Warsaw area. The Russians lost 150 thousand people in the battle of Narev. The Germans also suffered considerable damage. After the July battles, they were unable to continue their active offensive. The heroic resistance of the Russian armies in the Prasnysh and Narew battles saved the Russian troops in Poland from encirclement and, to a certain extent, decided the outcome of the 1915 campaign.

Battle of Vilna (1915). Completion of the Great Retreat. In August, the commander of the North-Western Front, General Mikhail Alekseev, planned to inflict a flank counterattack on the advancing German armies from the Kovno (now Kaunas) region. But the Germans preempted this maneuver and at the end of July they themselves attacked the Covenian positions with the forces of the 10th German Army (General von Eichhorn). After several days of the assault, the commandant of Kovno Grigoriev showed cowardice and surrendered the fortress to the Germans on August 5 (for this he was subsequently sentenced to 15 years in prison). The fall of Kovno worsened the strategic situation in Lithuania for the Russians and led to the withdrawal of the right wing of the troops of the North-Western Front for the Lower Neman. Having captured Kovno, the Germans tried to encircle the 10th Russian Army (General Radkevich). But in the stubborn oncoming August battles near Vilna, the German offensive collapsed. Then the Germans concentrated a powerful grouping in the Sventsyan region (north of Vilno) and on August 27 struck from there on Molodechno, trying to reach the rear of the 10th Army from the north and capture Minsk. Due to the threat of encirclement, the Russians had to leave Vilno. However, the Germans failed to build on the success. Their path was blocked by the timely approaching 2nd Army (General Smirnov), which had the honor to finally stop the German offensive. Having decisively attacked the Germans at Molodechno, she defeated them and forced them to retreat back to Sventsiany. By September 19, the Sventsiansky breakthrough was eliminated, and the front in this sector stabilized. The battle of Vilna ends, in general, the Great retreat of the Russian army. Having exhausted their offensive forces, the Germans are moving in the east to positional defense. The German plan for the defeat of the armed forces of Russia and its withdrawal from the war failed. Thanks to the courage of its soldiers and the skillful withdrawal of troops, the Russian army escaped encirclement. "The Russians escaped from the ticks and achieved a frontal withdrawal in a direction favorable to them," Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg, chief of the German General Staff, was forced to state. The front stabilized on the line Riga - Baranovichi - Ternopil. Three fronts were created here: North, West and South-West. The Russians did not retreat from here until the fall of the monarchy. During the Great Retreat, Russia suffered the largest losses in the war - 2.5 million people. (killed, wounded and captured). The damage of Germany and Austria-Hungary exceeded 1 million people. The retreat intensified the political crisis in Russia.

Campaign 1915 Caucasian theater of military operations

The beginning of the Great Retreat seriously influenced the development of events on the Russian-Turkish front. Partly for this reason, the grandiose Russian amphibious operation on the Bosphorus, which was planned to support the allied forces that landed in Gallipoli, was disrupted. Under the influence of the successes of the Germans, Turkish troops became more active on the Caucasian front.

Alashkert operation (1915). On June 26, 1915, the 3rd Turkish Army (Mahmud Kiamil Pasha) launched an offensive in the Alashkert region (Eastern Turkey). Under the onslaught of the superior forces of the Turks, the 4th Caucasian Corps (General Oganovsky) defending this sector began to retreat to the Russian border. This created the threat of a breakthrough for the entire Russian front. Then the energetic commander of the Caucasian army, General Nikolai Nikolaevich Yudenich, brought into battle a detachment under the command of General Nikolai Baratov, which struck a decisive blow to the flank and rear of the advancing Turkish group. Fearing encirclement, Mahmud Qiamil's units began to retreat to Lake Van, near which the front stabilized on July 21. The Alashkert operation ruined Turkey's hopes to seize the strategic initiative in the Caucasian theater of operations.

Hamadan operation (1915). October 17 - December 3, 1915, Russian troops undertook offensive actions in northern Iran to suppress the possible action of this state on the side of Turkey and Germany. This was facilitated by the German-Turkish residency, which intensified in Tehran after the failures of the British and French in the Dardanelles operation, as well as the Great retreat of the Russian army. The allies, the British, also sought to bring Russian troops into Iran, thus striving to strengthen the security of their possessions in Hindustan. In October 1915, the corps of General Nikolai Baratov (8 thousand people) was sent to Iran, which occupied Tehran, advancing to Hamadan, the Russians defeated the Turkish-Persian detachments (8 thousand people) and eliminated the German-Turkish agents in the country ... Thus, a reliable barrier was created against the German-Turkish influence in Iran and Afghanistan, and a possible threat to the left flank of the Caucasian army was also eliminated.

Campaign of 1915 War at sea

Military operations at sea in 1915 were, on the whole, successful for the Russian fleet. Of the largest battles of the 1915 campaign, one can single out the campaign of the Russian squadron to the Bosphorus (Black Sea). Gotlan battle and Irbene operation (Baltic Sea).

Hike to the Bosphorus (1915). The campaign to the Bosphorus, which took place on May 1-6, 1915, was attended by a squadron of the Black Sea Fleet consisting of 5 battleships, 3 cruisers, 9 destroyers, 1 air transport with 5 seaplanes. On May 2-3 the battleships "Three Saints" and "Panteleimon", having entered the area of \u200b\u200bthe Bosphorus, fired at its coastal fortifications. On 4 May the battleship Rostislav opened fire on the fortified area of \u200b\u200bIniada (northwest of the Bosphorus), which was attacked from the air by seaplanes. The apotheosis of the campaign to the Bosphorus was the battle on May 5 at the entrance to the strait between the flagship of the German-Turkish fleet on the Black Sea - the battle cruiser Goeben and four Russian battleships. In this skirmish, as in the battle at Cape Sarych (1914), the battleship Evstafiy distinguished itself, which knocked the Goeben out of action with two precise hits. The German-Turkish flagship ceased fire and withdrew from the battle. This trip to the Bosphorus strengthened the superiority of the Russian fleet on the Black Sea communications. In the future, the greatest danger to the Black Sea Fleet was represented by German submarines. Their activity did not allow Russian ships to appear off the Turkish coast until the end of September. With the entry into the war of Bulgaria, the Black Sea Fleet's area of \u200b\u200boperations expanded, covering a new large area in the western part of the sea.

Gotland Battle (1915). This sea battle took place on June 19, 1915 in the Baltic Sea near the Swedish island of Gotland between the 1st brigade of Russian cruisers (5 cruisers, 9 destroyers) under the command of Rear Admiral Bakhirev and a detachment of German ships (3 cruisers, 7 destroyers and 1 minelayer ). The battle was in the nature of an artillery duel. During the skirmish, the Germans lost the Albatross minelayer. He was badly damaged and burst into flames to the Swedish coast. There, his team was interned. Then there was a cruising battle. It was attended by: from the German side of the cruisers "Roon" and "Lubeck", from the Russian - the cruisers "Bayan", "Oleg" and "Rurik". Having received damage, the German ships ceased fire and withdrew from the battle. The Gotlad battle is notable for the fact that for the first time in the Russian fleet, radio intelligence data were used for firing.

Irbene operation (1915). During the offensive of the German ground forces in the Riga direction, the German squadron under the command of Vice Admiral Schmidt (7 battleships, 6 cruisers and 62 other ships) tried at the end of July to break through the Irbensky Strait into the Gulf of Riga to destroy Russian ships in this area and the naval blockade of Riga ... Here the Germans were opposed by the ships of the Baltic Fleet led by Rear Admiral Bakhirev (1 battleship and 40 other ships). Despite the significant superiority in forces, the German fleet was unable to fulfill the task due to minefields and the successful actions of Russian ships. During the operation (July 26 - August 8), he lost 5 ships (2 destroyers, 3 minesweepers) in fierce battles and was forced to retreat. The Russians lost two old gunboats (Sivuch\u003e and Koreets). Having failed in the Battle of Gotland and the Irbene operation, the Germans were unable to achieve superiority in the eastern part of the Baltic and went over to defensive actions. In the future, the serious activity of the German fleet became possible only here thanks to the victories of the ground forces.

Campaign 1916 Western Front

Military setbacks forced the government and society to mobilize resources to repel the enemy. Thus, in 1915, the contribution to defense of private industry expanded, the activities of which were coordinated by the military-industrial committees (MIC). Thanks to the mobilization of industry, the supply of the front by 1916 had improved. So, from January 1915 to January 1916, the production of rifles in Russia increased 3 times, of various types of weapons - 4-8 times, various types of ammunition - 2.5-5 times. Despite the losses, the Russian armed forces in 1915 grew due to additional mobilizations by 1.4 million people. The plan of the German command for 1916 provided for the transition to positional defense in the East, where the Germans created a powerful system of defensive structures. The Germans planned to deliver the main blow to the French army in the Verdun area. In February 1916, the famous "Verdun meat grinder" began spinning, forcing France to again turn to its eastern ally for help.

Naroch operation (1916). In response to persistent requests for help from France, the Russian command launched an offensive by forces of the Western (General Evert) and Northern (General Kuropatkin) fronts on March 5-17, 1916 in the area of \u200b\u200bLake Naroch (Belarus) and Yakobstadt (Latvia). Here they were opposed by units of the 8th and 10th German armies. The Russian command set the goal of knocking the Germans out of Lithuania, Belarus and throwing them back to the borders of East Prussia, but the preparation time for the offensive had to be drastically reduced due to requests from the allies to accelerate it in connection with their difficult situation at Verdun. As a result, the operation was carried out without proper preparation. The main blow in the Naroch region was delivered by the 2nd Army (General Ragoza). For 10 days, she unsuccessfully tried to break through the powerful German fortifications. Lack of heavy artillery and spring thaw contributed to the failure. The Naroch massacre cost the Russians 20 thousand killed and 65 thousand wounded. The offensive of the 5th Army (General Gurko) from the Jacobstadt area on March 8-12 also ended in failure. Here the losses of Russians amounted to 60 thousand people. The total damage of the Germans was 20 thousand people. The Naroch operation benefited, first of all, the allies of Russia, since the Germans were unable to transfer a single division from the east to Verdun. "The Russian offensive," wrote the French general Joffre, "forced the Germans, who had only insignificant reserves, to bring in all these reserves and, in addition, to draw in the stage troops and transfer entire divisions withdrawn from other sectors." On the other hand, the defeat at Naroch and Yakobstadt had a demoralizing effect on the troops of the Northern and Western fronts. They could not, unlike the troops of the Southwestern Front, carry out successful offensive operations in 1916.

Brusilov breakthrough and offensive at Baranovichi (1916). On May 22, 1916, the offensive of the troops of the Southwestern Front (573 thousand people) began, headed by General Alexei Alekseevich Brusilov. The Austro-German armies opposing him totaled 448 thousand people at that time. The breakthrough was carried out by all the armies of the front, which made it difficult for the enemy to transfer reserves. At the same time, Brusilov used a new tactic of parallel strikes. It consisted in the alternation of active and passive sections of the breakthrough. This disorganized the Austro-German troops and did not allow them to concentrate their forces on the threatened sectors. The Brusilov breakthrough was distinguished by careful preparation (up to training on precise models of enemy positions) and an increased supply of weapons to the Russian army. So, on the charging boxes there was even a special inscription: "Don't spare shells!" Artillery preparation in various sectors lasted from 6 to 45 hours. According to the figurative expression of the historian NN Yakovlev, on the day the breakthrough began, "the Austrian troops did not see the sunrise. Instead of the serene sunbeams, death came from the east - thousands of shells turned the habitable, heavily fortified positions into hell." It was in this famous breakthrough that the Russian troops succeeded to the greatest extent in achieving coordinated actions of infantry and artillery.

Under cover of artillery fire, the Russian infantry marched in waves (3-4 chains in each). The first wave, without stopping, passed the front line and immediately attacked the second line of defense. The third and fourth waves rolled over the first two and attacked the third and fourth lines of defense. This Brusilov method of "roll attack" was then used by the Allies to break through the German fortifications in France. According to the original plan, the Southwestern Front was to deliver only an auxiliary strike. The main offensive was planned for the summer on the Western Front (General Evert), which was assigned the main reserves. But the entire offensive of the Western Front was reduced to a week-long battle (June 19-25) in one sector near Baranovichi, which was defended by the Austro-German group Voyrsha. Going over to the attack after many hours of artillery barrage, the Russians were able to move forward somewhat. But they failed to completely break through the powerful, deeply echeloned defense (only on the front edge there were up to 50 rows of electrified wire). After bloody battles, which cost the Russian troops 80 thousand people. losses, Evert stopped the offensive. The damage of Voyrsha's group was 13 thousand people. Brusilov did not have sufficient reserves to successfully continue the offensive.

The headquarters was unable to shift the task of delivering the main blow to the Southwestern Front in time, and it began to receive reinforcements only in the second half of June. The Austro-German command took advantage of this. On June 17, the Germans, with the forces of the created group of General Lisingen, launched a counterattack on the 8th Army (General Kaledin) of the South-Western Front in the Kovel area. But she repulsed the onslaught and on June 22, together with the finally received reinforcements by the 3rd Army, launched a new offensive on Kovel. In July, the main battles took place in the Kovel direction. Brusilov's attempts to take Kovel (the most important transport hub) were unsuccessful. During this period, other fronts (Western and Northern) froze in place and did not provide Brusilov with virtually any support. The Germans and Austrians transferred reinforcements here from other European fronts (over 30 divisions) and managed to close the resulting gaps. By the end of July, the forward movement of the Southwestern Front was stopped.

During the Brusilov breakthrough, Russian troops broke into the Austro-German defense along its entire length from the Pripyat swamps to the Romanian border and advanced 60-150 km. The losses of the Austro-German troops during this period amounted to 1.5 million people. (killed, wounded and captured). The Russians lost 0.5 million people. To hold the front in the East, the Germans and Austrians were forced to weaken the pressure on France and Italy. Under the influence of the successes of the Russian army, Romania entered the war on the side of the Entente countries. In August - September, having received new reinforcements, Brusilov continued the onslaught. But he did not have the same success. On the left flank of the Southwestern Front, the Russians were able to somewhat press the Austro-German units in the Carpathian region. But stubborn attacks in the Kovel direction, which lasted until early October, ended in vain. Strengthened by that time, the Austro-German units repulsed the Russian onslaught. On the whole, despite the tactical success, the offensive operations of the Southwestern Front (from May to October) did not change the course of the war. They cost Russia huge sacrifices (about 1 million people), which became more and more difficult to restore.

Campaign of 1916 Caucasian theater of military operations

At the end of 1915, clouds began to gather over the Caucasian front. After the victory in the Dardanelles operation, the Turkish command planned to transfer the most combat-ready units from Gallipoli to the Caucasian front. But Yudenich got ahead of this maneuver by conducting the Erzrum and Trebizond operations. In them, the Russian troops achieved the greatest success in the Caucasian theater of military operations.

Erzrum and Trebizond operations (1916). The purpose of these operations was the capture of the fortress Erzrum and the port of Trebizond - the main bases of the Turks for actions against the Russian Transcaucasia. In this direction, the 3rd Turkish Army of Mahmud-Kiamil Pasha (about 60 thousand people) operated against the Caucasian army of General Yudenich (103 thousand people). On December 28, 1915, the 2nd Turkestan (General Przhevalsky) and 1st Caucasian (General Kalitin) corps went over to the offensive against Erzrum. The offensive took place in snowy mountains with strong winds and frost. But despite the difficult natural and climatic conditions, the Russians broke through the Turkish front and on January 8 reached the approaches to Erzrum. The assault on this heavily fortified Turkish fortress in conditions of severe cold and snow drifts, in the absence of siege artillery, was fraught with great risk, but Yudenich nevertheless decided to continue the operation, taking full responsibility for its implementation. In the evening of January 29, an unprecedented assault on the Erzrum positions began. After five days of fierce fighting, the Russians broke into Erzrum and then pursued Turkish troops. It lasted until February 18 and ended 70-100 km west of Erzrum. In the course of the operation, Russian troops advanced more than 150 km from their borders into Turkey. In addition to the courage of the troops, the success of the operation was ensured by reliable material training. The warriors had warm clothes, winter boots and even dark glasses to protect their eyes from the blinding glare of the mountain snow. Each soldier also had firewood for heating.

The losses of the Russians amounted to 17 thousand people. (including 6 thousand frostbitten). The damage of the Turks exceeded 65 thousand people. (including 13 thousand prisoners). On January 23, the Trebizond operation began, which was carried out by the forces of the Primorsky detachment (General Lyakhov) and the Batumi detachment of the Black Sea Fleet ships (Captain 1st Rank Rimsky-Korsakov). The sailors supported the ground forces with artillery fire, the landing of troops and the delivery of reinforcements. After stubborn battles, the Primorsky detachment (15 thousand people) went on April 1 to a fortified Turkish position on the Kara-Dere River, which covered the approaches to Trebizond. Here the attackers received reinforcements by sea (two Plastun brigades numbering 18 thousand people), after which they began the assault on Trebizond. The first to cross the stormy cold river on April 2 were the soldiers of the 19th Turkestan regiment under the command of Colonel Litvinov. Supported by fleet fire, they swam to the left bank and drove the Turks out of the trenches. On April 5, Russian troops entered Trebizond, abandoned by the Turkish army, and then advanced westward to Polathane. With the capture of Trebizond, the basing of the Black Sea Fleet improved, and the right flank of the Caucasian army was able to freely receive reinforcements by sea. The Russian capture of Eastern Turkey was of great political importance. He seriously strengthened Russia's position in future negotiations with the allies about the future fate of Constantinople and the straits.

Kerind-Kasreshirin operation (1916). Following the capture of Trebizond, the 1st Caucasian Separate Corps of General Baratov (20,000 men) made a campaign from Iran to Mesopotamia. He was supposed to provide assistance to an English detachment surrounded by the Turks in Kut al-Amar (Iraq). The campaign took place from April 5 to May 9, 1916. Baratov's corps occupied Kerind, Kasre-Shirin, Khanekin and entered Mesopotamia. However, this difficult and dangerous campaign in the desert lost its meaning, since on April 13 the English garrison in Kut al-Amar surrendered. After the capture of Kut-el-Amara, the command of the 6th Turkish army (Khalil Pasha) sent its main forces to Mesopotamia against the greatly thinned (from heat and disease) Russian corps. At Haneken (150 km northeast of Baghdad), Baratov had an unsuccessful battle with the Turks, after which the Russian corps left the occupied cities and retreated to Hamadan. East of this Iranian city, the Turkish offensive was stopped.

Erzrinjan and Ognotskaya operations (1916). In the summer of 1916, the Turkish command, having transferred up to 10 divisions from Gallipoli to the Caucasian front, decided to take revenge for Erzrum and Trebizond. The first on June 13 went on the offensive from the Erzincan region, the 3rd Turkish army under the command of Vehib Pasha (150 thousand people). The hottest fighting broke out in the Trebizond direction, where the 19th Turkestan regiment was stationed. With his perseverance, he managed to hold back the first Turkish onslaught and gave Yudenich the opportunity to regroup his forces. On June 23, Yudenich launched a counterattack in the Mamakhatun area (west of Erzrum) with the forces of the 1st Caucasian Corps (General Kalitin). In four days of fighting, the Russians captured Mamahatun, and then launched a general counteroffensive. It ended on July 10 with the capture of Erzincan station. After this battle, the 3rd Turkish army suffered huge losses (over 100 thousand people) and stopped active operations against the Russians. After being defeated at Erzincan, the Turkish command entrusted the task of returning Erzrum to the newly formed 2nd Army under the command of Ahmet-Izet Pasha (120 thousand people). On July 21, 1916, she launched an offensive in the Erzrum direction and pushed back the 4th Caucasian Corps (General de Witt). Thus, a threat was created to the left flank of the Caucasian army.In response, Yudenich struck a counterattack at Ognot with the forces of the group of General Vorobyov. In stubborn oncoming battles in the Ognotsky direction, which lasted all August, Russian troops thwarted the offensive of the Turkish army and forced it to go over to the defensive. The losses of the Turks amounted to 56 thousand people. The Russians lost 20 thousand people. So, the attempt of the Turkish command to intercept the strategic initiative on the Caucasian front failed. In the course of two operations, the 2nd and 3rd Turkish armies suffered irreparable losses and stopped active operations against the Russians. The Ognotskaya operation was the last major battle of the Russian Caucasian army in the First World War.

Campaign 1916 War at sea

On the Baltic Sea, the Russian fleet supported the right flank of the 12th Army defending Riga with fire, and also sank the German merchant ships and their convoys. Russian submarines were also quite successful in this. From the retaliatory actions of the German fleet, one can name its shelling of the Baltic port (Estonia). This raid, based on a lack of understanding of the Russian defense, ended in disaster for the Germans. During the operation on Russian minefields, 7 of the 11 German destroyers participating in the campaign were blown up and sank. None of the fleets knew such a case during the entire war. On the Black Sea, the Russian fleet actively contributed to the offensive of the coastal flank of the Caucasian Front, participating in the transport of troops, the landing of assault forces and fire support of the advancing units. In addition, the Black Sea Fleet continued to blockade the Bosphorus and other strategically important places on the Turkish coast (in particular, the Zonguldak coal region), and also struck at the enemy's sea communications. As before, German submarines were active in the Black Sea, causing significant damage to Russian transport ships. To combat them, new weapons were invented: diving shells, hydrostatic depth charges, anti-submarine mines.

Campaign of 1917

By the end of 1916, the strategic position of Russia, despite the occupation of part of its territories, remained fairly stable. Its army held its ground firmly and carried out a number of offensive operations. For example, France had a higher percentage of occupied lands than Russia. If from Petersburg the Germans were more than 500 km away, then from Paris - only 120 km. However, the internal situation in the country has seriously deteriorated. The grain harvest has decreased by 1.5 times, prices have increased, and transport has gone wrong. An unprecedented number of men - 15 million people - were drafted into the army, and the national economy lost a huge number of workers. The scale of human losses also became different. On average, the country lost as many soldiers at the front every month as in entire years of past wars. All this demanded from the people an unprecedented exertion of forces. However, not all of society bore the burden of the war. For certain strata, military difficulties became a source of enrichment. For example, the placement of military orders in private factories brought huge profits. The source of income growth was the deficit, which allowed to inflate prices. It was widely practiced to evade the front by means of a device in the rear organizations. In general, the problems of the rear, its correct and comprehensive organization, turned out to be one of the most vulnerable places of Russia in the First World War. All this created an increase in social tension. After the failure of the German plan to end the war with lightning speed, the First World War became a war of attrition. In this struggle, the Entente countries had a total advantage in terms of the number of armed forces and economic potential. But the use of these advantages to a large extent depended on the mood of the nation, firm and skillful leadership.

In this respect, Russia was the most vulnerable. Nowhere has there been such an irresponsible split at the top of society. Representatives of the State Duma, the aristocracy, generals, left-wing parties, the liberal intelligentsia and associated circles of the bourgeoisie expressed the opinion that Tsar Nicholas II was unable to bring the matter to a victorious end. The growth of opposition sentiments was partly determined by the connivance of the authorities themselves, which failed to establish proper order in the rear in wartime. Ultimately, all this led to the February Revolution and the overthrow of the monarchy. After the abdication of Nicholas II (March 2, 1917), the Provisional Government came to power. But its representatives, powerful in criticizing the tsarist regime, turned out to be helpless in governing the country. A dual power arose in the country between the Provisional Government and the Petrograd Soviet of Workers', Peasants' and Soldiers' Deputies. This led to further destabilization. There was a struggle for power at the top. The army, which became hostage to this struggle, began to fall apart. The first impetus to the collapse was given by the famous Order No. 1 issued by the Petrograd Soviet, depriving officers of disciplinary power over soldiers. As a result, discipline in the units fell and desertion increased. Anti-war propaganda intensified in the trenches. The officers, who became the first victim of the soldiers' discontent, suffered greatly. The purge of the highest command staff was carried out by the Provisional Government itself, which did not trust the military. Under these conditions, the army was increasingly losing combat capability. But the Provisional Government, under pressure from the allies, continued the war, hoping to strengthen its position with successes at the front. Such an attempt was the June Offensive, organized by the Minister of War, Alexander Kerensky.

June offensive (1917). The main blow was delivered by the troops of the Southwestern Front (General Gutor) in Galicia. The offensive was poorly prepared. To a large extent, it was of a propaganda nature and was intended to raise the prestige of the new government. Initially, the Russians were successful, which was especially noticeable in the sector of the 8th Army (General Kornilov). She broke through the front and advanced 50 km, occupying the cities of Galich and Kalush. But the larger troops of the South-Western Front could not reach. Their pressure quickly faded under the influence of anti-war propaganda and the growing resistance of the Austro-German troops. At the beginning of July 1917, the Austro-German command transferred 16 new divisions to Galicia and launched a powerful counterattack. As a result, the troops of the Southwestern Front were defeated and were thrown back significantly to the east of their initial lines, to the state border. The June offensive was also associated with offensive actions in July 1917 by the Romanian (General Shcherbachev) and Northern (General Klembovsky) Russian fronts. The offensive in Romania, near Mareshty, developed successfully, but was stopped by Kerensky's order under the influence of defeats in Galicia. The offensive of the Northern Front at Jakobstadt completely failed. The total loss of Russians during this period amounted to 150 thousand people. Political events, which had a corrupting effect on the troops, played a significant role in their failure. “These were no longer the former Russians,” the German general Ludendorff recalled of those battles. The defeats in the summer of 1917 intensified the crisis of power and exacerbated the internal political situation in the country.

Riga operation (1917). After the defeat of the Russians in June-July, the Germans conducted an offensive operation with the forces of the 8th Army (General Gutierre) on August 19-24, 1917 to capture Riga. The Riga direction was defended by the 12th Russian army (General Parsky). On August 19, German troops launched an offensive. By noon, they crossed the Dvina, threatening to go into the rear of the units defending Riga. Under these conditions, Parsky ordered the evacuation of Riga. On August 21, the Germans entered the city, where the German Kaiser Wilhelm II arrived especially on the occasion of this celebration. After the capture of Riga, German troops soon stopped the offensive. Russian losses in the Riga operation amounted to 18 thousand people. (including 8 thousand prisoners). The damage of the Germans is 4 thousand people. The defeat near Riga aggravated the internal political crisis in the country.

Moonsund Operation (1917). After the capture of Riga, the German command decided to take control of the Gulf of Riga and destroy the Russian naval forces there. For this, on September 29 - October 6, 1917, the Germans carried out the Moonsund operation. For its implementation, they allocated a Marine Special Purpose Detachment, consisting of 300 ships of various classes (including 10 battleships) under the command of Vice Admiral Schmidt. General von Caten's 23rd Reserve Corps (25,000 men) was assigned for the landing on the Moonsund Islands, which blocked the entrance to the Gulf of Riga. The Russian garrison of the islands numbered 12 thousand people. In addition, the Gulf of Riga was protected by 116 ships and auxiliary vessels (including 2 battleships) under the command of Rear Admiral Bakhirev. The Germans occupied the islands without much difficulty. But in the battle at sea, the German fleet met stubborn resistance from Russian sailors and suffered heavy losses (16 ships were sunk, 16 ships were damaged, including 3 battleships). The Russians lost the battleship Slava and the destroyer Grom, who had fought heroically. Despite their great superiority in forces, the Germans were unable to destroy the ships of the Baltic Fleet, which in an organized manner withdrew to the Gulf of Finland, blocking the German squadron's path to Petrograd. The Battle of the Moonsund Archipelago was the last major military operation on the Russian front. In it, the Russian fleet defended the honor of the Russian armed forces and worthily completed their participation in the First World War.

Brest-Litovsk truce (1917). Peace of Brest (1918)

In October 1917, the Provisional Government was overthrown by the Bolsheviks, who were in favor of an early peace. On November 20, in Brest-Litovsk (Brest), they began separate peace negotiations with Germany. On December 2, a truce was concluded between the Bolshevik government and the German representatives. On March 3, 1918, the Brest Peace was concluded between Soviet Russia and Germany. Large territories were torn away from Russia (the Baltic states and part of Belarus). Russian troops were withdrawn from the territories of the newly independent Finland and Ukraine, as well as from the districts of Ardahan, Kars and Batum, which were transferred to Turkey. In total, Russia lost 1 million square meters. km of land (including Ukraine). The Brest-Litovsk Peace threw it in the west to the borders of the 16th century. (during the reign of Ivan the Terrible). In addition, Soviet Russia was obliged to demobilize the army and navy, to establish favorable customs duties for Germany, and also to pay the German side a significant contribution (its total amount was 6 billion gold marks).

The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk meant a grave defeat for Russia. The Bolsheviks assumed historical responsibility for it. But in many respects the Brest-Litovsk Peace only recorded the situation in which the country was brought to collapse by the war, the helplessness of the authorities and the irresponsibility of society. The victory over Russia made it possible for Germany and its allies to temporarily occupy the Baltic states, Ukraine, Belarus and Transcaucasia. In the First World War, the death toll in the Russian army was 1.7 million. (killed, died from wounds, gases, in captivity, etc.). The war cost Russia $ 25 billion. A deep moral trauma was also inflicted on the nation, which for the first time in many centuries suffered such a heavy defeat.

Shefov N.A. The most famous wars and battles of Russia M. "Veche", 2000.
"From Ancient Rus to the Russian Empire". Shishkin Sergey Petrovich, Ufa.

As you might guess, the name began to be used only after the Second World War began on September 1, 1939. Prior to this, the West used the name "Great War" more often, less often - just "World War". In Russia before the October Revolution of 1917, in addition to the name "Great War", such official names as "Second Patriotic War" and "Great Patriotic War" and such unofficial names as "Great War", "Great European War" and " German War ".

The latter name emphasized that this was the first war against the German state after the Seven Years' War of 1756-1763, as well as the fact that in the First World War the German Empire was the main enemy of the Russian Empire. After the revolution, the First World War in the USSR until the beginning of the Second World War was called "imperialist war", and the name "First World War" was written with a lowercase, not a capital letter. During the war, the propaganda of the tsarist government sought to liken it to the Patriotic War of 1812, which came to be called the "First Patriotic War." This was facilitated by the fact that shortly before the outbreak of the First World War, in 1912, the 100th anniversary of the 1812 Goal War was celebrated on a large scale.

On the model of the struggle against Napoleon's "Great Army", they tried to create cavalry guerrilla detachments from regular and Cossack cavalry, which turned out to be almost useless in the conditions of trench warfare and, at best, could only carry out reconnaissance searches. The main thing is that the Russian army has changed a lot over the past hundred years, and has changed far from for the better. In 1812, the Russian army was a professional army consisting of sagtat recruits and nobles, the overwhelming majority of whom had sufficient combat experience by the beginning of the war. This army numbered about half a million people and could practically fight on an equal footing with the French army - at that moment the best army in the world.

The general social and economic backwardness of Russia from Western Europe at that time did not yet affect the army, since the large population and resources of the Russian Empire made it possible to maintain a strong army that was not inferior to the best Western European armies. Then there were enough manufactories to equip the troops and supply it with guns and rifles with a sufficient supply of cannonballs and bullets. In the war of 1914-1918, the bare situation was completely different. By 1917, the Russian army numbered about 10 million people, and the regular army was almost completely knocked out in the first three months of the war. In 1917, the army consisted mainly of recruits who had little combat experience and little understanding of the goals of the war, since most of them were illiterate or illiterate. The officers were also, to a large extent, warrant lieutenants and second lieutenants who did not have much authority with their subordinates.

In the war of 1812, at least the officers were fully aware of the goals of the war - serving the emperor and preserving the greatness of Russia, for which it was required to crush the enemy army, and were able to inspire this to their subordinates. In the First World War, wartime officers, as a rule, were not hereditary nobles, had a very vague idea of \u200b\u200bthe goals of the war and did not have much respect for the last Russian monarch, and for the monarchy as a whole. And for millions of soldiers, the goals of the war in the form of the conquest of Constantinople and the Straits or the help of "fraternal Serbia" were frankly alien, if only because few knew who the Serbs were. And, unlike the war with Napoleon, Russia in the First World War could not field millions of sufficiently combat-ready soldiers and hundreds of thousands of sufficiently trained.

And the Russian industry, in terms of the volume and quality of its products several times inferior to the USA, Germany, England and France, and in terms of production per capita - also of Belgium, Italy and Austria-Hungary, was not able to provide the army with the necessary number of rifles, machine guns and guns , as well as ammunition for them, not to mention such modern weapons as aircraft. Russia was not able to maintain at the proper level and transport, which played a fatal role before the February Revolution. Finally, in 1812, Napoleon invaded the Russian provinces and reached Moscow, which caused a surge of patriotic feelings to defend his native land and the development of a partisan movement, to which the aggressor's army, especially after the burning of Moscow, was very vulnerable. A century later, the Germans reached the Russian provinces proper only in February 1918, when the resistance of the Russian army actually ceased. The development of the partisan movement was also out of the question. The patriotism associated with the declaration of war had dried up by the end of 1914. As a result, the Russian army was able to fight on equal terms only with the Austro-Hungarian army, torn apart by interethnic contradictions, traditionally defeating the Turks, but completely losing to the German army. But the war led to the enemy's occupation of Russian Poland, Lithuania, large parts of Belarus and Latvia, and ultimately to the revolution that ended the Romanov monarchy and brought the Bolsheviks to power, which determined the fate of Russia throughout almost the entire 20th century.

Russia suffered a general defeat, and the glorious victories of the Russian army over the Austrians and Turks served only as weak consolation. For all of the above reasons, the overwhelming majority of the population, with the possible exception of a rather narrow stratum of caloric officers, did not perceive World War I as a domestic war. Therefore, the term "Great Patriotic War" or "Second Patriotic War" in relation to the First World War was used only in official publications, but practically did not become widespread among the general population, in diaries, private correspondence, etc.

One hundred great secrets of the First World War / B.V. Sokolov. - M .: Veche, 2014.-416 p. - (100 great).

On June 28, 1914, in Bosnia, the murder of the Austro-Hungarian Archduke Ferdinand and his wife was committed, in which Serbia was accused of involvement. And although the British statesman Edward Gray called for a settlement of the conflict, proposing the 4 largest powers as mediators, this only managed to intensify the situation more and drag the whole of Europe, including Russia, into the war.

Almost a month later, Russia announces the mobilization of troops and conscription, after Serbia turns to her for help. However, what was originally planned as a precautionary measure prompted a backlash from Germany with demands for an end to the conscription. As a result, on August 1, 1914, Germany declares war on Russia.

The main events of the First World War.

Years of the First World War.

• When did World War I start? The year of the outbreak of the First World War is 1914 (July 28).
• When did World War II end? The year of the end of the First World War is 1918 (November 11).

Key dates of the First World War.

During the 5 years of the war, there were many important events and operations, but among them several stand out that played a decisive role in the war itself and its history.

• On July 28, Austria-Hungary declares war on Serbia. Russia supports Serbia.
• On August 1, 1914, Germany declares war on Russia. Germany in general has always strived for world domination. And throughout August, all of them put ultimatums to each other and all they do is declare war.
• In November 1914, Great Britain begins a naval blockade of Germany. Gradually, active mobilization of the population into the army begins in all countries.
• In early 1915, large-scale offensive operations were launched in Germany, on its eastern front. The spring of the same year, namely April, can be associated with such a significant event as the start of the use of chemical weapons. Again from Germany.
• In October 1915, hostilities were unleashed against Serbia by Bulgaria. In response to these actions, the Entente declares war on Bulgaria.
• In 1916, the use of tank equipment began, mainly by the British.
• In 1917, Nicholas II abdicated the throne in Russia, a provisional government came to power, which led to a split in the army. Active hostilities continue.
• In November 1918 Germany proclaims itself a republic - the result of the revolution.
• On November 11, 1918, from the very morning, Germany signed the Compiegne armistice and from that time on, the hostilities ended.

End of the First World War.

Despite the fact that for most of the war the German forces were able to deliver serious blows to the Allied army, by December 1, 1918, the Allies were able to break through to the borders of Germany and begin its occupation.

Later, on June 28, 1919, having no other choice, the German representatives signed a peace treaty in Paris, which was eventually named the "Peace of Versailles", and put an end to the First World War.